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= WINC ( AM ) =
WINC ( 1400 AM ) is a broadcast radio station licensed to Winchester , Virginia , United States . The station carries a news , talk , and sports format . WINC serves Winchester along with Frederick and Clarke counties in Virginia .
Launched on June 26 , 1941 , by Richard Field Lewis , Jr . , WINC was Winchester 's first radio station . It remained in the hands of the Lewis family until sold to North Carolina @-@ based Centennial Broadcasting in 2007 . The station 's current format , established in 1996 , consists mostly of conservative talk programs and top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ hour news from Fox News Radio . Sports programming from Virginia Tech is also broadcast . Prior formats heard on WINC include middle of the road music , adult contemporary , and classic hits .
Several milestones have occurred during the station 's 75 years of history . WINC was the station on which country music singer Patsy Cline made her debut in 1948 , when Cline asked the leader of a " hillbilly band " for a chance to perform with them on air . In the late 1950s , the station 's chief engineer , Philip Whitney , designed a CONELRAD alarm device for FM stations to warn listeners in the event of an enemy attack during the Cold War . Whitney also created many of the remote control systems used by radio stations . He was awarded for his work by the National Association of Broadcasters in 1970 . WINC had difficulty renewing its license in the early 1970s , as it was airing 22 minutes of commercials per hour — in excess of what the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) permitted . The station encountered further trouble in 1988 when a local prosecutor called one of its promotions an " illegal cash lottery " ; a judge disagreed . In that same year , the news department at WINC received an Associated Press Broadcasters Association national award for " Best Radio Spot News " .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast and launch = = =
Richard Field Lewis , Jr. was a graduate of the College of Engineering at the University of California , Berkeley . He founded Fredericksburg , Virginia @-@ based radio station WFVA in 1939 . Before that , he had worked at KFXM in San Bernardino , California , as chief engineer . Lewis filed the initial application for a new station in Winchester , Virginia , with the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) during the week of November 10 , 1940 . He applied to have WINC broadcast on AM 1370 at 250 watts , and the application was approved on February 4 , 1941 . In early March 1941 , the FCC assigned the WINC call sign , derived from the first four letters in Winchester . In June 1941 , WINC announced it would join the NBC Blue Network the following month .
At 6 : 57am , on June 26 , 1941 , WINC began broadcasting for the first time , becoming Winchester 's first radio station . Instead of the frequency of AM 1370 applied for , WINC launched on AM 1400 . At launch , the station broadcast at 250 watts day and night . Two weeks later , on July 13 , Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd and Governor James Hubert Price attended the dedication of the station . The first announcer on WINC was Grant Pollock , who had been hired as the station 's commercial sales manager . Pollock came to Winchester from NBC Radio in Los Angeles . At the time of WINC 's launch , Winchester had a population of 12 @,@ 095 , with only 2 @,@ 968 radios .
Throughout the station 's existence , WINC 's studios have been located at 520 North Pleasant Valley Road in Winchester . The address at launch was 520 Kerr Street , later incorporated into Pleasant Valley Road .
= = = History since launch = = =
= = = = World War II = = = =
Less than six months after the station 's first broadcast , WINC carried live descriptions of the attack on Pearl Harbor and President Roosevelt 's " Infamy Speech " the following day . With the United States entry to World War II , WINC participated in the war effort on the air and at its studios . The City of Winchester erected an Aircraft Warning Service station , manned by volunteers , beside the WINC facility . The station aired an hour @-@ long special program called " Virginia Schools at War Mobilization " on February 22 , 1943 . The program involved approximately 618 @,@ 000 schoolchildren and teachers from around the state , war @-@ savings staff , and state and civic dignitaries . The special , broadcast live from Mount Vernon , was carried on 13 other Virginia stations and on WWDC in Washington , D.C. WINC participated in another wartime broadcast , this one in late January 1944 , to encourage the public to buy War Bonds . A total of $ 150 @,@ 525 in bonds were sold during the two @-@ hour program , broadcast on 13 stations in Virginia and 1 in Washington , D.C.
On June 15 , 1945 , the NBC Blue Network formally changed its name to the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . WINC remained an affiliate of the renamed network . In the same year , C. Leslie Golliday was hired as the station 's production manager . Golliday also built and launched two stations of his own : WEPM in Martinsburg , West Virginia , in 1946 and WCLG in Morgantown , West Virginia , in 1954 .
= = = = Post World War II = = = =
The station began carrying Standard Oil 's " Your Esso Weather Reporter " spots on April 22 , 1946 . The Esso programs included the " latest weather prediction and [ a ] brief commercial " . WINC began carrying programming from the Keystone Broadcasting System ( KBS ) and Lang – Worth Feature Programs in 1946 and 1948 respectively . Both Keystone and Lang @-@ Worth were electrical transcription networks . Programming from Lang @-@ Worth was removed from the station 's schedule in 1951 , while Keystone programming remained until 1960 . Richard F. Lewis , Jr. launched WINC @-@ FM , sister station to WINC , on November 18 , 1946 .
A January 1947 contest on WINC was responsible for knocking out the entire telephone system for the city of Winchester . Mark Sheeler , a disc jockey at WINC , gave a " wolf whistle " as the signal for Winchester area " housewives " to call the studio . The first one to reach him would win " a free pair of nylon hose and a $ 10 handbag " . The station received around 4 @,@ 000 simultaneous phone calls ; the first call to get through was from the telephone company . Sheeler was informed that his contest was jamming local phone lines . He quickly made an on @-@ air announcement calling off the contest .
On August 8 , 1947 , WINC applied to move from 1400 to 950 AM . In the same application , the station requested an increase in the station 's power to 1 @,@ 000 watts during the day and 500 watts at night . More than two years later , the application was dismissed and WINC remained at its original frequency and power .
Fourteen @-@ year @-@ old country music singer Virginia " Ginny " Hensley , who later became Patsy Cline , began her career by making her broadcast debut on WINC in 1948 . Hensley asked " Joltin ' " Jim McCoy , the leader of a " hillbilly band " called " The Melody Playboys " , about to perform on the station , for a chance to sing with them . She told the band leader , " If you just give me a chance to sing with you , I 'll never ask for pay . " Cline continued to perform regularly on Saturday mornings on WINC . In 1948 and 1949 , respectively , Bing Crosby and Bob Hope visited WINC , where they were interviewed on @-@ the @-@ air . Crosby and Hope were each in town for the city 's annual Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival .
WINC joined the NBC Radio Network ( previously named NBC Red ) on November 1 , 1951 , after more than 10 years as an ABC affiliate ( previously called NBC Blue ) . WINC rejoined ABC Radio , carrying both networks ' programming , on January 18 , 1952 , but dropped NBC programming in 1953 . WINC became one of the flagship members of the Washington Senators Baseball Network , established in May 1952 . The station added the long @-@ running Voice of Prophecy program on June 3 , 1953 . On October 18 , 1957 , WINC owner Richard F. Lewis , Jr . , died , and control of WINC passed to his widow , Marion Park Lewis . Ownership of the station was transferred again on January 31 , 1964 , from Richard F. Lewis Jr . , Inc . , a company owned by Marion Park Lewis , to Mid @-@ Atlantic Network Inc . , a corporation wholly owned by the Lewis family .
The station applied for and received a construction permit on August 9 , 1958 , to increase its broadcasting power from 250 to 1 @,@ 000 watts , both day and night . The FCC approved the application in January 1961 but only for a daytime power increase . In 1959 , WINC engineer Philip Whitney designed a CONELRAD alarm device for FM stations . The CONELRAD system allowed for early nationwide warnings in the event of possible enemy attack during the Cold War . Whitney is also credited with creating many of the remote control systems used by radio stations , including the microwave remote control system . The National Association of Broadcasters presented Whitney with its annual Engineering Award on April 7 , 1970 , for his work .
= = = = 1960s through 1980s = = = =
In the 1960s , the station hosted interviews with several prominent figures . Paul Harvey , in town for a speaking engagement , broadcast his " News and Comment " program from WINC studios on April 14 , 1962 . President Lyndon B. Johnson , visiting for the Apple Blossom Festival in 1964 , was interviewed live on the station . The station was the first in Winchester to announce the assassinations of John F. Kennedy in 1963 and Robert F. Kennedy in 1968 .
While attempting to renew the station 's license in early 1971 , Mid @-@ Atlantic Network ran into trouble with the FCC due to the quantity of commercials the station was airing . The station was carrying 22 minutes of commercials an hour according to a letter from then @-@ FCC Broadcast Bureau Chief Francis R. Welsh . Welsh said in the letter that the FCC was not convinced the amount of commercials served the community in a positive way . At the time , the FCC allowed no more than 18 minutes of commercials per hour . However , the station 's license was ultimately renewed on May 14 , 1971 .
Part of WINC 's programming in 1977 included daily political commentaries from former California governor Ronald Reagan . WINC remained an ABC Radio affiliate in 1978 , carrying its American Contemporary Network with a middle of the road music format . WINC added adult contemporary music to its format in 1980 . In 1981 , the first year for which ratings information is available , WINC led all other area stations with a 16 @.@ 3 rating . The station dropped the middle of the road music in 1982 , airing only adult contemporary music . In 1985 , WINC removed ABC Radio 's " American Contemporary Network " from its schedule in favor of ABC 's " American Entertainment Network " , while continuing to air an adult contemporary format . The station increased its nighttime power to 1 @,@ 000 watts in 1986 . The news department at WINC received an Associated Press Broadcasters Association national award for " Best Radio Spot News " in 1988 .
= = = = = 1988 " Lottery " lawsuit = = = = =
The local prosecutor , City of Winchester Commonwealth 's Attorney Paul Thomson , filed suit against WINC and sister station WINC @-@ FM in June 1988 for a promotion Thomson called an " illegal cash lottery " . A license plate number of a car with a WINC bumper sticker was announced over the air , and the owner was given 92 minutes to call in and choose to accept a prize of $ 92 or give up the money for a chance of winning $ 9 @,@ 200 . Thomson compared the contest to the game show Let 's Make a Deal . On December 19 , 1988 , Winchester Circuit Court Judge Perry Sarver ruled in favor of WINC stating he didn 't believe " promotional plans such as was used ... are in violation of the lottery statute " . Sarver also said it would require a " substantial expenditure " for the contest to be considered a lottery .
= = = = 1990s and after = = = =
By 1991 , WINC was airing a classic hits format , which was dropped a year later , returning to adult contemporary . Talk programs were added in 1994 and all music dropped two years after that . Also in 1996 , WINC became an affiliate of AP Radio . With the change to News / Talk , WINC garnered only a 2 @.@ 9 in the 1996 radio ratings . In contrast , sister station WINC @-@ FM received a 12 @.@ 1 during the same ratings period .
The station 's Internet presence also began in 1996 , as a subpage within sister station WINC @-@ FM 's website . WINC launched its own website in 2008 . In 1998 , WINC began using the slogan " The Right Side of the AM Dial " . The station picked up CBS and CNN affiliations in 2000 , dropping the Associated Press .
On October 22 , 2007 , WINC debuted a live and local morning show called The Winchester Morning Magazine airing weekdays from 6 : 00 am to 10 : 00 am . The program , hosted by Michael Haman , featured topics ranging from local general interest to news . The program was cancelled under a year later in September 2008 , and the station returned to syndicated programming in the mornings . Also in 2008 , WINC began using the " First in Winchester , First in News " slogan .
= = = = = Sale to Present day = = = = =
On May 17 , 2007 , Mid @-@ Atlantic Network announced it was selling WINC to North Carolina @-@ based Centennial Broadcasting . The price of the sale , initially reported at $ 36 million , also included sister stations WINC @-@ FM , WWRT ( now WZFC ) , and WWRE ( now WXBN ) in Winchester and WBQB and WFVA in Fredericksburg . Later reports had the price of the sale at $ 35 @.@ 972 million .
Centennial CEO Allen B. Shaw , commenting in a Winchester Star interview on the sale , said he had been considering buying the company for several months . At the time of the interview , he did not foresee any changes to the stations . The sale closed in August 2007 , and in the last ratings book under Lewis Family ownership , WINC received a 2 @.@ 7 rating . The station 's ratings have stayed within a 2 to 3 point range , while the format has remained the same after the sale .
WINC celebrated it 's 75th year on the air on June 26 , 2016 . The station aired vignettes with former employees and a classic photo album was added on the station 's website .
= = Programming = =
WINC carries a news / talk / sports format established in 1996 . The station 's weekday schedule starts with Jim Bohannon 's America in the Morning newshour followed by Hugh Hewitt . Conservative talk show hosts Laura Ingraham , Rush Limbaugh , Sean Hannity , and Mark Levin are then broadcast , followed by the The Jim Bohannon Show and Coast to Coast AM .
WINC carries five @-@ minute newscasts every hour from Fox News Radio . The station also has a news department that prepares and broadcasts local news reports . The station is an affiliate of the Virginia Tech IMG Sports Network , which carries Virginia Tech football and basketball .
Weekend programming on WINC includes The Pet Show hosted by Warren Eckstein , The Sam Sorbo Show , The Kim Komando Show , and home @-@ improvement shows In the Garden with Andre Viette and On the House with the Carey Brothers . The Score , a statewide conservative talk program , hosted by WRVA 's Scott Lee , is also heard . The station also airs " best of " editions of previously recorded weekday programming .
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= FC Bayern Munich =
Fußball @-@ Club Bayern München e.V. , commonly known as FC Bayern München ( German pronunciation : [ ʔɛf tseː ˈbaɪɐn ˈmʏnçn ̩ ] ) , FCB , Bayern Munich , or FC Bayern , is a German sports club based in Munich , Bavaria , Germany . It is best known for its professional football team , which plays in the Bundesliga , the top tier of the German football league system , and is the most successful club in German football history , having won a record 26 national titles and 18 national cups .
FC Bayern was founded in 1900 by eleven football players led by Franz John . Although Bayern won its first national championship in 1932 , the club was not selected for the Bundesliga at its inception in 1963 . The club had its period of greatest success in the middle of the 1970s when , under the captaincy of Franz Beckenbauer , it won the European Cup three times in a row ( 1974 – 76 ) . Overall , Bayern has reached ten European Cup / UEFA Champions League finals , most recently winning their fifth title in 2013 as part of a continental treble . Bayern has also won one UEFA Cup , one European Cup Winners ' Cup , one UEFA Super Cup , one FIFA Club World Cup and two Intercontinental Cups , making it one of the most successful European clubs internationally . Since the formation of the Bundesliga , Bayern has been the dominant club in German football with 26 titles and has won 8 of the last 12 titles . They have traditional local rivalries with TSV 1860 München and 1 . FC Nürnberg , as well as with Borussia Dortmund since the mid 1990s .
Since the beginning of the 2005 – 06 season , Bayern has played its home games at the Allianz Arena . Previously the team had played at Munich 's Olympiastadion for 33 years . The team colours are red and white , and the team crest shows the white and blue flag of Bavaria . In terms of revenue , Bayern Munich is the biggest sports club in Germany and the third biggest football club in the world , generating € 487 @.@ 5 million for the 2013 – 14 season . Bayern has over 270 @,@ 000 members . There are more than 4 @,@ 000 officially @-@ registered fan clubs with over 314 @,@ 000 members . The club has other departments for chess , handball , basketball , gymnastics , bowling , table tennis , and senior football with more than 1 @,@ 100 active members .
FC Bayern is ranked second in the current UEFA club coefficient rankings and second in IFFHS 's latest IFFHS Club World Ranking .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1900 – 65 ) = = =
FC Bayern Munich was founded by members of a Munich gymnastics club ( MTV 1879 ) . When a congregation of members of MTV 1879 decided on 27 February 1900 that the footballers of the club would not be allowed to join the German Football Association ( DFB ) , eleven members of the football division left the congregation and on the same evening founded Fußball @-@ Club Bayern München . Within a few months Bayern achieved high @-@ scoring victories against all local rivals , including a 15 – 0 win against FC Nordstern , and reached the semifinals of the 1900 – 01 South German championship . In the following years the club won some local trophies and in 1910 – 11 Bayern joined the newly founded " Kreisliga " , the first regional Bavarian league . They won this league in its first year , but did not win it again until the beginning of World War I in 1914 , which halted all football activities in Germany .
In the years after the war , Bayern won several regional competitions , before winning their first South German championship in 1926 , an achievement repeated two years later . Their first national title was gained in 1932 , when coach Richard " Little Dombi " Kohn led the team to the German championship by defeating Eintracht Frankfurt 2 – 0 in the final .
The advent of Nazism put an abrupt end to Bayern 's development . The president , Kurt Landauer and the coach , both of whom were Jewish , left the country . Many others in the club were also purged . Bayern was taunted as the " Jew 's club " , while local rival 1860 München gained much support . Josef Sauter , who was inaugurated 1943 , was the only NSDAP member as president . As some Bayern players greeted Landauer , who was watching a friendly in Switzerland lead to continued discrimination . Bayern was also affected by the ruling that football players had to be full amateurs again . In the following years Bayern could not sustain its role of contender for the national title , achieving mid @-@ table results in its regional league instead .
After the war , Bayern became a member of the Oberliga Süd , the southern conference of the German first division , which was split five ways at that time . Bayern struggled , hiring and firing 13 coaches between 1945 and 1963 . Landauer returned from exile in 1947 and was once again appointed club president , the tenure lasted until 1951 . He remains as the club 's president with the longest accumulated tenure . Landauer has been deemed as inventor of Bayern as a professional club and his memory is e.g. being upheld by the Bayern ultras Schickeria . In 1955 they were relegated , but returned to the Oberliga in the following season and won the DFB @-@ Pokal for the first time , beating Fortuna Düsseldorf 1 – 0 in the final . The club struggled financially though , verging on bankruptcy at the end of the 1950s . Manufacturer Roland Endler provided the necessary funds and was rewarded with four years at the helm of the club . In 1963 , the Oberligas in Germany were consolidated into one national league , the Bundesliga . Five teams from the Oberliga South were admitted . Bayern finished third in that year 's southern division , but another Munich team , TSV 1860 München , had won the championship . As the DFB preferred not to include two teams from one city , Bayern was not chosen for the Bundesliga . They gained promotion two years later , fielding a team with young talents like Franz Beckenbauer , Gerd Müller , and Sepp Maier — who would later be collectively referred to as the axis .
= = = Golden years ( 1965 – 79 ) = = =
In their first Bundesliga season , Bayern finished third and also won the DFB @-@ Pokal . This qualified them for the following year 's European Cup Winners ' Cup , which they won in a dramatic final against Scottish club Rangers , when Franz Roth scored the decider in a 1 – 0 extra time victory . In 1967 , Bayern retained the DFB @-@ Pokal , but slow overall progress saw Branko Zebec take over as coach . He replaced Bayern 's offensive style of play with a more disciplined approach , and in doing so achieved the first league and cup double in Bundesliga history in 1969 . Bayern Munich are one of four German clubs to win the Bundesliga and DFB @-@ Pokal in the same season along with Borussia Dortmund , 1 . FC Köln , and SV Werder Bremen . Zebec used only 13 players throughout the season .
Udo Lattek took charge in 1970 . After winning the DFB @-@ Pokal in his first season , Lattek led Bayern to their third German championship . The deciding match in the 1971 – 72 season against Schalke 04 was the first match in the new Olympiastadion , and was also the first live televised match in Bundesliga history . Bayern beat Schalke 5 – 1 and thus claimed the title , also setting several records , including points gained and goals scored . Bayern also won the next two championships , but the zenith was their triumph in the 1974 European Cup Final against Atlético Madrid , which Bayern won 4 – 0 after a replay . This title – after winning the Cup Winners ' trophy 1967 and two semi @-@ finals ( 1968 and 1972 ) in that competition – marked the club 's breakthrough as a force on the international stage . During the following years , the team was unsuccessful domestically but defended their European title by defeating Leeds United in the 1975 European Cup Final when Roth and Müller secured victory with late goals . " We came back into the game and scored two lucky goals , so in the end we were the winners but we were very , very lucky " , stated Franz Beckenbauer . Billy Bremner believed the French referee was " very suspicious . " Leeds fans then rioted in Paris and were banned from European Football for three years . A year later in Glasgow , AS Saint @-@ Étienne were defeated by another Roth goal and Bayern became the third club to win the trophy in three consecutive years . The final trophy won by Bayern in this era was the Intercontinental Cup , in which they defeated Brazilian club Cruzeiro over two legs . The rest of the decade was a time of change and saw no further titles for Bayern . In 1977 , Franz Beckenbauer left for New York Cosmos and , in 1979 , Sepp Maier and Uli Hoeneß retired while Gerd Müller joined the Fort Lauderdale Strikers . Bayerndusel was coined during this period as an expression of either contempt or envy about the sometimes narrow and last @-@ minute wins against other teams .
= = = From FC Breitnigge to FC Hollywood ( 1979 – 98 ) = = =
The 1980s were a period of off @-@ field turmoil for Bayern , with many changes in personnel and financial problems . On the field , Paul Breitner and Karl @-@ Heinz Rummenigge , termed FC Breitnigge , led the team to Bundesliga titles in 1980 and 1981 . Apart from a DFB @-@ Pokal win in 1982 , two relatively unsuccessful seasons followed , after which Breitner retired and former coach Udo Lattek returned . Bayern won the DFB @-@ Pokal in 1984 and went on to win five Bundesliga championships in six seasons , including a double in 1986 . However , European success was elusive during the decade ; Bayern managed to claim the runners @-@ up spot in the European Cup in 1982 and 1987 .
Jupp Heynckes was hired as coach in 1987 , but after two consecutive championships in 1988 – 89 and 1989 – 90 Bayern 's form dipped . After a second place in 1990 – 91 the club finished just five points above the relegation places in 1991 – 92 . In the season of 1993 – 94 , Bayern lost out in the UEFA Cup second round to the Premier League team Norwich City , who remain the only English football club to beat them at the Olympiastadion . Success returned when Franz Beckenbauer took over for the second half of the 1993 – 94 season , winning the championship again after a four @-@ year gap . Beckenbauer was then appointed club president .
His successors as coach , Giovanni Trapattoni and Otto Rehhagel , both finished trophyless after a season , not meeting the club 's high expectations . During this time Bayern 's players frequently appeared in the gossip pages of the press rather than the sports pages , resulting in the nickname FC Hollywood . Franz Beckenbauer briefly returned at the end of the 1995 – 96 season as caretaker coach and led his team to victory in the UEFA Cup , beating Bordeaux in the final . For the 1996 – 97 season , Trapattoni returned to win the championship . In the following season , Bayern lost the title to newly promoted Kaiserslautern and Trapattoni had to take his leave for the second time .
= = = Renewed international success ( 1998 – present ) = = =
After his success at Borussia Dortmund , Bayern were coached by Ottmar Hitzfeld from 1998 to 2004 . In Hitzfeld 's first season , Bayern won the Bundesliga and came close to winning the Champions League , losing 2 – 1 to Manchester United into injury time after leading for most of the match . The following year , in the club 's centenary season , Bayern won the third league and cup double in its history . A third consecutive Bundesliga title followed in 2001 , won with a stoppage time goal on the final day of the league season . Days later , Bayern won the Champions League for the fourth time after a 25 @-@ year gap , defeating Valencia CF on penalties . The 2001 – 02 season began with a win in the Intercontinental Cup , but ended trophyless otherwise . In 2002 – 03 , Bayern won their fourth double , leading the league by a record margin of 16 points . Hitzfeld 's reign ended in 2004 , with Bayern underperforming , including defeat by second division Alemannia Aachen in the DFB @-@ Pokal .
Felix Magath took over and led Bayern to two consecutive doubles . Prior to the start of the 2005 – 06 season , Bayern moved from the Olympiastadion to the new Allianz Arena , which the club shares with TSV 1860 München . On the field their performance in 2006 – 07 was erratic . Trailing in the league and having lost to Alemannia Aachen in the cup yet again , coach Magath was sacked shortly after the winter break .
Hitzfeld returned as trainer in January 2007 , but Bayern finished the 2006 – 07 season fourth , thus failing to qualify for the Champions League for the first time in more than a decade . Additional losses in the DFB @-@ Pokal and the DFB @-@ Ligapokal left the club with no honours for the season .
For the 2007 – 08 season , Bayern made drastic squad changes to help rebuild . They signed a total of eight new players and sold , released or loaned out nine of their players . Among new signings were 2006 World Cup stars such as Franck Ribéry , Miroslav Klose and Luca Toni . Bayern went on to win the Bundesliga , being on top of the standings on every single week of play , and the DFB @-@ Pokal against Borussia Dortmund .
On 11 January 2008 , Jürgen Klinsmann was named as Hitzfeld 's successor , taking charge on 1 July 2008 . He signed a two @-@ year contract . Bayern Munich lost the DFL @-@ Supercup 1 – 2 against Borussia Dortmund in 2008 . Bayer Leverkusen eliminated Bayern in quarter @-@ finals of the DFB @-@ Pokal . In the Champions League Bayern also reached the quarter @-@ finals after winning Group F and defeating Sporting Clube de Portugal in the first knockout round , achieving a Champions League record aggregate of 12 – 1 . On 27 April , two days after a home defeat against Schalke which saw Bayern drop to the third place in the table , Klinsmann was fired . Former trainer Jupp Heynckes was named as caretaker until the end of the season . Bayern eventually finished second , thus qualifying directly for the Champions League in 2009 – 10 .
Bayern then signed Dutch manager Louis van Gaal for the 2009 – 10 season . Multi @-@ million signings of Arjen Robben and Mario Gómez also followed in a bid to return Bayern to the top of the European scene . On 8 May 2010 , Bayern Munich won the 2009 – 10 Bundesliga after a 3 – 1 win at Hertha BSC . Bayern then won the DFB @-@ Pokal on 15 May 2010 to secure the domestic double . Bayern also reached the 2010 UEFA Champions League Final but were beaten 2 – 0 by Internazionale , failing to become the first German club to complete the treble .
In the 2010 – 11 season , Bayern were eliminated in the first round of the Champions League knockout phase by Internazionale on the away goals rule and finished third in the Bundesliga . Van Gaal was fired by Bayern in April 2011 .
In the 2011 – 12 season , Heynckes returned to coach Bayern for a second permanent spell but the team was to end the season without a trophy for the second season running . Domestically they finished second in the Bundesliga and lost the DFB @-@ Pokal final 2 – 5 , both times finishing runner @-@ up to Borussia Dortmund . They also reached the final of the Champions League in their home stadium , but lost to Chelsea on penalties ( 3 – 4 ) , in what was only their second defeat to an English team in Munich , and their first at the Allianz Arena .
In the 2012 – 13 season , Bayern won the 2012 DFL @-@ Supercup 2 – 1 against rivals Borussia Dortmund . FC Bayern became the first team in history to win their first eight matches in the Bundesliga after their 5 – 0 away win to Fortuna Düsseldorf . On 6 April 2013 , Bayern won the 2012 – 13 Bundesliga after a 1 – 0 win at Eintracht Frankfurt with six games left , setting a new record for being the earliest ever Bundesliga winners . Other Bundesliga records set by Bayern in the 2012 – 13 season include most points in a season ( 91 ) , highest league winning points margin ( 25 ) , most wins in a season ( 29 ) and fewest goals conceded in a season ( 18 ) . Bayern also equaled the record for fewest defeats in a season , losing once to Bayer 04 Leverkusen . Bayern also reached the Champions League final for the third time in four seasons , winning the club 's fifth European Cup with a 2 – 1 defeat of domestic rivals Borussia Dortmund at Wembley Stadium . On 1 June 2013 , Bayern beat VfB Stuttgart 3 – 2 in the 2013 DFB @-@ Pokal Final to become the first German club in men 's football to complete the treble ; Bayern had missed out on trebles in 1999 and 2010 .
On 1 July 2013 , Pep Guardiola took over as manager ahead of the 2013 – 14 season . Bayern also completed the signing of Mario Götze from Borussia Dortmund for € 37m , who became the most expensive German player in history ( this was later surpassed by Mesut Özil 's transfer from Real Madrid to Arsenal for € 50m ) . On 24 July 2013 , it was reported that Bayern had become the first German club with over 200 @,@ 000 members . On 27 July 2013 , Bayern Munich lost against rivals Borussia Dortmund 2 – 4 in the 2013 DFL @-@ Supercup at Signal Iduna Park . On 30 August 2013 , Bayern won the UEFA Super Cup against Chelsea . On 9 November 2013 , Bayern set a new record for most successive Bundesliga matches without defeat , breaking Hamburger SV 's thirty @-@ year @-@ old record of 36 matches . This record was eventually extended to 53 matches , before Bayern lost 1 – 0 to FC Augsburg in April 2014 . On 27 November 2013 , Bayern became the first team to win ten consecutive Champions League matches with a 3 – 1 away victory over CSKA Moscow . On 21 December 2013 , Bayern beat Raja Casablanca 2 – 0 at the Stade de Marrakech to win the 2013 FIFA Club World Cup .
After almost a year of investigations against Uli Hoeneß , Bayern 's former player , former long time general manager , and president at the time , he was convicted of tax evasion on 13 March 2014 . Hoeneß resigned as president the next day , and Karl Hopfner was elected president on 2 May . Just days after Hoeneß conviction , on 25 March , Bayern won their 24th Bundesliga title by beating Hertha BSC 3 – 1 at the Olympiastadion in Berlin . With seven matches remaining in the season , it was the earliest the championship had been won in Bundesliga history , breaking the record Bayern had set in the previous season . At the end of the season Bayern beat Borussia Dortmund 2 – 0 in the 2014 DFB @-@ Pokal Final to give the club the tenth league and cup double in its history .
In 2014 – 15 , Bayern defended their league title , and , the following season , won an eleventh double , including a record fourth consecutive Bundesliga title . At the end of the in 2015 – 16 season , Guardiola left Bayern to take over as manager of Manchester City and was replaced by Carlo Ancelotti .
= = Colours = =
In the original club constitution , Bayern 's colours were named as white and blue , but the club played in white shirts with black shorts until 1905 , when Bayern joined MSC . MSC decreed that the footballers would have to play in red shorts . Also the younger players were called red @-@ shorts , which was meant as an insult . For most of the club 's early history , Bayern had primarily worn white and maroon home kits . In 1968 – 69 season , Bayern changed to red and blue striped shirts , with blue shorts and socks . Between 1969 and 1973 , the team wore a home strip of red and white striped shirts with either red or white shorts and red socks . In the 1973 – 74 season , the team switched to an all white kit featuring single vertical red and blue stripes on the shirt . From 1974 onwards , Bayern have mostly worn an all red home kit , with white trim . Bayern revived the red and blue striped colour scheme between 1995 and 1997 . In 1997 , blue was the dominant colour for the first time when Adidas released an all navy blue home kit with a red chest band . In 1999 , Bayern returned to a predominantly red kit , which featured blue sleeves , and in 2000 the club released a traditional all red kit with white trim to be worn for Champions League matches . Bayern also wore a Rotwein coloured home kits in Bundesliga matches between 2001 and 2003 , and during the 2006 – 07 Champions League campaign , in reference to their first choice colours prior to the late 1960s .
The club 's away kit has had a wide range of colours over the years , including white , black , blue , and gold @-@ green . Bayern also features a distinct international kit . During the 2013 – 14 season , Bayern have used an all red home kit with a Bavarian flag diamond watermark pattern , a Lederhosen inspired white and black Oktoberfest away kit , and an all navy blue international kit .
In the 1980s and 1990s , Bayern used a special away kit when playing at 1 . FC Kaiserslautern , representing the Brazilian colours blue and yellow , a superstition borne from the fact that the club found it hard to win there .
= = = Historical kits = = =
= = Crest = =
Bayern 's crest has changed several times . Originally it consisted of the stylised letters F , C , B , M , which were woven into one symbol . The original crest was blue . The colours of Bavaria were included for the first time in 1954 .
The modern version of the crest has changed from the 1954 version in several steps . While the crest consisted of a single colour only for most of the time , namely blue or red , the current ( 2008 ) crest is blue , red , and white . It has the colours of Bavaria in its centre and FC Bayern München is written in white on a red ring enclosing the Bavarian colours .
= = Stadiums = =
Bayern played its first training games at the Schyrenplatz in the centre of Munich . The first official games were held on the Theresienwiese . In 1901 , Bayern moved to a field of its own , located in Schwabing at the Clemensstraße . After joining the Münchner Sport @-@ Club ( MSC ) in 1906 , Bayern moved in May 1907 to MSC 's ground at the Leopoldstraße . As the crowds gathering for Bayern 's home games increased at the beginning of the 1920s , Bayern had to switch to various other premises in Munich .
From 1925 , Bayern shared the Grünwalder Stadion with 1860 Munich . Until World War II , the stadium was owned by 1860 Munich , and is still colloquially known as Sechz 'ger ( " Sixties " ) Stadium . It was destroyed during the war , and efforts to rebuild it resulted in a patchwork . Bayern 's record crowd at the Grünwalder Stadion is reported as more than 50 @,@ 000 in the home game against 1 . FC Nürnberg in the 1961 – 62 season . In the Bundesliga era the stadium had a maximum capacity of 44 @,@ 000 which was reached on several occasions , but the capacity has since been reduced to 21 @,@ 272 . As was the case at most of this period 's stadiums , the vast majority of the stadium was given over to terracing . Today the second teams of both clubs play in the stadium .
For the 1972 Summer Olympics the city of Munich built the Olympiastadion . The stadium , renowned for its architecture , was inaugurated in the last Bundesliga match of the 1971 – 72 season . The match drew a capacity crowd of 79 @,@ 000 , a total which was reached again on numerous occasions . The stadium was , in its early days , considered to be one of the foremost stadia in the world and played host to numerous major finals , such as that of 1974 FIFA World Cup . In the following years the stadium underwent several modifications , such as an increase in seating space from approximately 50 % to ca . 66 % . Eventually the stadium had a capacity of 63 @,@ 000 for national matches , and 59 @,@ 000 for international occasions such as European Cup competitions . Many people , however , began to feel that the stadium was too cold in winter , with half the audience exposed to the weather due to lack of cover . A further complaint was the distance between the spectators and the pitch , the stadium betraying its track and field heritage . Modification of the stadium proved impossible as the architect Günther Behnisch vetoed major modifications of the stadium .
After much discussion , the city of Munich , the state of Bavaria , FC Bayern , and TSV 1860 jointly decided at the end of 2000 to build a new stadium . While Bayern had wanted a purpose @-@ built football stadium for several years , the awarding of the 2006 FIFA World Cup to Germany stimulated the discussion as the Olympiastadion no longer met the FIFA criteria to host a World Cup game . Located on the northern outskirts of Munich , the Allianz Arena has been in use since the beginning of the 2005 – 06 season . Its initial capacity of 66 @,@ 000 fully covered seats has since been increased for matches on national level to 69 @,@ 901 by transforming 3 @,@ 000 seats to terracing in a 2 : 1 ratio . Since August 2012 , 2 @,@ 000 more seats were added in the last row of the top tier increasing the capacity to 71 @,@ 000 . In January 2015 , a proposal to increase the capacity was approved by the city council so now Allianz Arena has a capacity of 75 @,@ 000 ( 70 @,@ 000 in Champions League ) .
The most prominent feature of the stadium is the translucent outer layer , which can be illuminated in different colours for impressive effects . Usually , red lighting is used for Bayern home games , blue for TSV 1860 München games and white for German national team home games .
In May 2012 , Bayern opened a museum about its history , FC Bayern Erlebniswelt , inside the Allianz Arena .
= = Supporters = =
Bayern considers itself a national club . The club had 3 @,@ 202 fanclubs with total 231 @,@ 197 members in 2012 , making it the club with the largest number of organised supporters in Germany . Owing partly to the club having supporters all over the country , all of Bayern 's away games have been sold out in recent years . Their following is mainly recruited from the aspiring middle class and regional Bavaria . Despite a large proportion of their supporters having to travel more than 200 km ( ca . 120 miles ) regularly , the club 's home matches in the Allianz Arena have almost always been sold out . According to a study by Sport + Markt Bayern is the fifth @-@ most popular football club in Europe with 20 @.@ 7 million supporters , and the most popular football club in Germany with 10 million supporters .
Bayern Munich is also renowned for its well @-@ organised ultra scene . The most prominent groups are the Schickeria München , the Inferno Bavaria , the Red Munichs ' 89 , the Südkurve ' 73 , the Munichmaniacs 1996 , the Red Angels , and the Red Sharks . The ultras scene of Bayern Munch has been recognized for certain groups taking stance against right @-@ wing extremism , racism and homophobia , and in 2014 the group Schickeria München received the Julius Hirsch Award by the DFB for its commitment against antisemitism and discrimination .
Stern des Südens is the song which fans sing at FCB home games . In the 1990s they also used to sing FC Bayern , Forever Number One .
The club also has quite a number of high @-@ profile supporters , among them Pope Benedict XVI , Boris Becker , retired German tennis player , Wladimir Klitschko , Ukrainian boxer , Horst Seehofer and Edmund Stoiber , former Minister @-@ President of Bavaria , to name just a few .
= = Rivalries = =
Bayern Munich has a rivalry with Borussia Dortmund . Bayern and Dortmund have competed against each other for many Bundesliga titles . Bayern and Dortmund have played against each other in the DFB @-@ Pokal final in 2008 , 2012 , and 2014 . The 2 – 5 loss against Dortmund in the 2012 DFB @-@ Pokal final was Bayern 's worst ever loss in a final . Bayern and Dortmund have also played against each other in the DFL @-@ Supercup in 1989 , 2008 , 2012 , 2013 and 2014 . The height of the rivalry was when Bayern defeated Dortmund , 2 – 1 in the final of the 2013 UEFA Champions League .
Bayern is one of three professional football clubs in Munich . Bayern 's main local rival is TSV 1860 München , who were the more successful club in the 1960s , winning a cup and a championship . In the 1970s and 1980s , TSV 1860 moved between the first and the third division , but lately have settled in the second division . The Munich derby is still a much anticipated event , getting a lot of extra attention from supporters of both clubs . 1860 is considered more working @-@ class , and therefore suffers from a diminishing fan base in a city where the manufacturing sector is declining . Bayern is considered the establishment club , which is reflected by many board members being business leaders and including the former Bavarian minister president , Edmund Stoiber . Despite the rivalry , Bayern has repeatedly supported 1860 in times of financial disarray .
Since the 1920s , 1 . FC Nürnberg has been Bayern 's main and traditional rival in Bavaria . Philipp Lahm said that playing Nürnberg is " always special " and is a " heated atmosphere " . Both clubs played in the same league in the mid @-@ 1920s , but in the 1920s and 1930s , Nürnberg was far more successful , winning five championships in the 1920s , making the club Germany 's record champion . Bayern took over the title more than sixty years later , when they won their tenth championship in 1987 , thereby surpassing the number of championships won by Nürnberg . The duel between Bayern and Nürnberg is often referred to as the Bavarian Derby .
Bayern also enjoys a strong rivalry with the 1 . FC Kaiserslautern , originating in parts from a game in 1973 , when Bayern lost 7 – 4 after leading 4 – 1 , but also from the two clubs competing for German championship honours at various times in the Bundesliga as well as the city of Kaiserslautern together with the surrounding Palatinate having been part of Bavaria until a plebiscite after the end of the Second World War .
Since the 1970s , Bayern 's main rivals have been the clubs who put up the strongest fight against its national dominance . In the 1970s this was Borussia Mönchengladbach , in the 1980s the category expanded to include Hamburger SV . In the 1990s , Borussia Dortmund , Werder Bremen , and Bayer Leverkusen emerged as the most ardent opponents . Recently Borussia Dortmund , Schalke , and Werder Bremen have been the main challengers in the Bundesliga .
Amongst Bayern 's chief European rivals are Real Madrid , A.C. Milan , and Manchester United due to many classic wins , draws and losses . Real Madrid versus Bayern is the match that has historically been played most often in the Champions League with 14 matches and the European Cup with 19 matches . Real 's biggest loss at home in the Champions League came at the hands of Bayern on 29 February 2000 ( 2 – 4 ) . Due to Bayern being traditionally hard to beat for Madrid , Madrid supporters often refer to Bayern as the " Bestia negra " ( " Black Beast " ) . Despite the number of duels , Bayern and Real have never met in the final of a Champions League or European Cup . The two teams met in the 2011 – 12 Champions League semi @-@ finals which resulted in 3 – 3 on aggregate , forcing extra time and penalties . Bayern won 3 – 1 on penalties to reach their first ever home Champions League final . They then again met in 2013 – 14 UEFA Champions League semi @-@ finals , a rematch of the 2012 semi @-@ final , with Real Madrid winning 5 – 0 on aggregate .
= = Organization and finance = =
Bayern is led mostly by former club players . Since 2 May 2014 , Karl Hopfner serves as the club 's president , following Uli Hoeneß who had been in office from 2009 to 2014 ; Hoeneß had resigned after being convicted of tax fraud . Karl @-@ Heinz Rummenigge is the chairman of the executive board of the AG . The supervisory board of nine consists mostly of managers of big German corporations . Besides the club 's president and the board 's chairman Karl Hopfner , they are Herbert Hainer ( Adidas ) , Rupert Stadler ( Audi ) , Werner Zedelius ( Allianz ) , Timotheus Höttges ( Deutsche Telekom ) , Rudolf Schels , Edmund Stoiber , Theodor Weimer ( UniCredit Bank ) , and Martin Winterkorn ( Volkswagen ) .
Professional football at Bayern is run by the spin @-@ off organization FC Bayern München AG . AG is short for Aktiengesellschaft , and Bayern is run like a joint stock company , a company whose stock are not listed on the public stock exchange , but is privately owned . 75 % of FC Bayern München AG is owned by the club , the FC Bayern München e . V. ( e . V. is short for Eingetragener Verein , which translates into " Registered Club " ) . Three Germany @-@ based corporations , the sports goods manufacturer Adidas , the automobile company Audi and the financial services group Allianz each hold 8 @.@ 33 % of the shares , 25 % in total . Adidas acquired its shares in 2002 for € 77m . The money was designated to help finance the Allianz Arena . In 2009 Audi paid € 90m for their share . The capital was reportedly going to be used to repay the loan for the Allianz Arena quicker than originally planned . And in early 2014 , Allianz became the fourth stakeholder of the company acquiring theirs share for € 110m . Bayern 's other sports departments are run by the club .
Bayern 's main advertising partner and current holder of the jersey rights is Deutsche Telekom . The main supplier of the club is Adidas . The premium partners include Audi , HypoVereinsbank , Imtech , Lufthansa , MAN , Paulaner Brewery , Samsung , DHL and Yingli Solar . Classic sponsors include Coca @-@ Cola , Siemens , Hublot , Henkel , Flyeralarm , Nestle Schoeller , Adelholzener , Fitness First , Schaeffler Group , s.Oliver , Viagogo , Trentino , Thomas Sabo and Starwood Hotels and Resorts . Food sponsors include Albi , BiFi , Ehrmann and MF . In previous years the jersey rights were held by Adidas ( 1974 – 78 ) , Magirus Deutz and Iveco ( trucks / 1978 – 84 ) , Commodore ( computers / 1984 – 89 ) and Opel ( cars / 1989 – 2002 ) .
Bayern is an exception in professional , international football , having generated profits in nine of the last ten seasons . Other clubs often report losses , realizing transfers via loans , whereas Bayern always uses current assets . Also Bayern differs from other European top clubs in their income composition . While other clubs derive more than 35 % of their revenues from broadcasting right , Bayern earn only 22 % of their revenues that way . This is often accounted for by Bayern not marketing their broadcasting right themselves . Instead the Deutsche Fußball Liga negotiates broadcasting rights for the whole Bundesliga .
In 2011 – 12 , Bayern reported revenues of € 373 @.@ 4 million , marking the eighth consecutive time that Bayern has topped their previous record earnings . According to the 2013 edition of Deloitte 's annual Football Money League , Bayern was the fourth richest club in the world in 2012 , generating revenues of € 368 @.@ 4 million .
While other European clubs have mainly marketed to international audiences , Bayern has focused on Germany . Forbes ranks Bayern as the world 's fifth most valuable football club in their annual list , estimating the club 's value at $ 1 @.@ 235 billion . As a result of Bayern 's finals appearance in the 2012 UEFA Champions League , the club 's brand value has reached $ 786 million USD which is up 59 percent from the previous year . Among European teams this is ahead of Real Madrid 's $ 600 million USD and behind first place Manchester United whose brand is valued at $ 853 million USD . In 2013 , Bayern overtook Manchester United to take first place in brand valuation .
= = Social engagement and charity = =
Bayern has been involved with charitable ventures for a long time , helping other football clubs in financial disarray as well as ordinary people in misery . In the wake of the 2004 Tsunami the " FC Bayern – Hilfe e.V. " was founded , a foundation that aims to concentrate the social engagements of the club . At its inception this venture was funded with € 600 @,@ 000 , raised by officials and players of the club . The money was amongst other things used to build a school in Marathenkerny , Sri Lanka and to rebuild the area of Trincomalee , Sri Lanka . In April 2007 it was decided that the focus of the foundation would shift towards supporting people in need locally .
The club has also time and again shown to have a soft spot for clubs in financial disarray . Repeatedly the club has supported its local rival 1860 Munich with gratuitous friendlies , transfers at favourable rates , and direct money transfers . Also when St. Pauli threatened to lose its license for professional football due to financial problems , Bayern met the club for a friendly game free of any charge , giving all revenues to St. Pauli . More recently when Mark van Bommel 's home club Fortuna Sittard was in financial distress Bayern came to a charity game at the Dutch club . Another well known example was the transfer of Alexander Zickler in 1993 from Dynamo Dresden . When Bayern picked up Zickler for 2 @.@ 3 Million DM many considered the sum to be a subvention for the financially threatened Dresdeners . In 2003 , Bayern provided a 2 Million Euro loan without collateral to the nearly bankrupt Borussia Dortmund which has since been repaid . On 14 July 2013 , Bayern played a charity game against financially threatened third division Hansa Rostock . The game raised about € 1 million , securing Hansa 's licence .
In the summer of 2013 Bayern was the first club to give financial support to the Magnus Hirschfeld National Foundation . The foundation researches the living environment LGBT people , and developed an eductation concept to facilitate unbiased dealing with LGBT themes in football .
= = Training facility = =
FC Bayern Munich training facilities , for both the professional and the Junior Team , are located at the Bayern Munich Headquarters . There are four grass pitches , one of which has undersoil heating , one artificial grass field and a multi @-@ functional sports hall . After the closure of Munich American High School , FC Bayern purchased the DoDDS adjacent sporting fields that previously held MAHS 's football pitch and baseball field . A new grass pitch was placed over the existing football pitch while an artificial turf field was placed over the baseball diamond .
The players ' quarters opened in 1990 and were reconstructed after the 2007 – 08 season on suggestions by the new coach , Jürgen Klinsmann , who took inspiration from various major sports clubs . The quarters are now called the performance centre and feature a weights and fitness area , a massage unit , dressing rooms , the coaches ' office , and a conference room with screening facilities for video analysis . A café , a library , an e @-@ Learning room , and a family room are also included .
Located at the headquarters is also the Youth academy , which houses up to 13 young talents from outside the city . While being part of Bayern 's Junior Team they can work there on their development as footballers . Former residents of the Youth House include Owen Hargreaves , Michael Rensing , and Bastian Schweinsteiger .
In 2006 Bayern purchased land near the Allianz Arena with the purpose of building a new youth academy . In 2015 the project , estimated to cost € 70 million , was started , after overcoming internal resistance . The main reasons for the project were that the existing facilities were too small and that the club , while very successful at senior level , lacked competitiveness with other German and European clubs at youth level . The new facility is scheduled to open in the 2017 – 18 season .
= = Honours = =
Bayern is historically the most successful team in German football , as they have won the most championships and the most cups . They are also Germany 's most successful team in international competitions , having won eleven trophies . Bayern is one of only four clubs to have won all three major European competitions and also the last club to have won the European Cup three times in a row , entitling them to wear a multiple @-@ winner badge during Champions League matches .
= = = Domestic = = =
German Champions
Winner ( 26 ) : 1931 – 32 , 1968 – 69 , 1971 – 72 , 1972 – 73 , 1973 – 74 , 1979 – 80 , 1980 – 81 , 1984 – 85 , 1985 – 86 , 1986 – 87 , 1988 – 89 , 1989 – 90 , 1993 – 94 , 1996 – 97 , 1998 – 99 , 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03 , 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16 ( record )
DFB @-@ Pokal
Winner ( 18 ) : 1956 – 57 , 1965 – 66 , 1966 – 67 , 1968 – 69 , 1970 – 71 , 1981 – 82 , 1983 – 84 , 1985 – 86 , 1997 – 98 , 1999 – 2000 , 2002 – 03 , 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16 ( record )
DFB / DFL @-@ Supercup
Winner : 1987 , 1990 , 2010 , 2012
( Unofficial winners ) : 1982
DFB @-@ Ligapokal
Winner ( 6 ) : 1997 , 1998 , 1999 , 2000 , 2004 , 2007 ( record )
= = = European = = =
UEFA Champions League / European Cup
Winner ( 5 ) : 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1975 – 76 , 2000 – 01 , 2012 – 13
UEFA Europa League / UEFA Cup
Winner : 1995 – 96
UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup
Winner : 1966 – 67
UEFA Super Cup
Winner : 2013
= = = Worldwide = = =
Intercontinental Cup
Winner : 1976 , 2001
FIFA Club World Cup
Winner : 2013
= = = Regional = = =
The regional Bavarian and Southern German honours of the club :
Southern German football championship
Champions : 1925 – 26 , 1927 – 28
Runners @-@ up : 1909 – 10 , 1910 – 11 , 1928 – 29 , 1931 – 32
Southern German Cup
Champions : 1957
Runners @-@ up : 1923
Ostkreis @-@ Liga ( I )
Champions : 1910 , 1911 ; runners @-@ up : 1912 , 1913 , 1917 , 1918 ( record )
Kreisliga Südbayern
Champions : 1920 , 1923 ( shared record )
Runners @-@ up : 1922
Bezirksliga Bayern
Champions : 1925 – 26
Bezirksliga Südbayern
Champions : 1927 – 28 , 1928 – 29 , 1929 – 30 , 1930 – 31 , 1931 – 32 , 1932 – 33 ( record )
Gauliga Südbayern
Champions : 1943 – 44
Regionalliga Süd ( II )
Champions : 1964 – 65
Runners @-@ up : 1963 – 64
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 18 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Players out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
For recent transfers , see List of German football transfers summer 2016 .
See also : Bayern Munich II , Bayern Munich Junior Team
= = = Notable past players = = =
At his farewell game , Oliver Kahn was declared honorary captain of Bayern Munich . The players below are part of the FC Bayern Munich Hall of Fame .
1930s
Conrad Heidkamp ( DF )
1970s :
Franz Beckenbauer ( DF )
Gerd Müller ( FW )
Uli Hoeneß ( FW )
Paul Breitner ( MF )
Sepp Maier ( GK )
Hans @-@ Georg Schwarzenbeck ( DF )
Franz Roth ( MF )
1980s :
Karl @-@ Heinz Rummenigge ( FW )
Klaus Augenthaler ( DF )
1990s :
Lothar Matthäus ( DF / MF )
Stefan Effenberg ( MF )
2000s :
Oliver Kahn ( GK )
Mehmet Scholl ( MF )
Bixente Lizarazu ( DF )
Giovane Élber ( FW )
= = = Captains = = =
Philipp Lahm has been the captain since 2011 .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
12 – Club Supporters ( the 12th Man )
= = Coaches = =
See also : Category : FC Bayern Munich managers and List of FC Bayern Munich records and statistics # Coaches
= = = Current staff = = =
As of 3 July 2016
= = = Coaches since 1963 = = =
Bayern had 19 coaches since its promotion to the Bundesliga in 1965 . Udo Lattek , Giovanni Trapattoni , Ottmar Hitzfeld and Jupp Heynckes served two terms as head coach . Franz Beckenbauer served one term as head coach and one as caretaker . Lattek was the club 's most successful coach , having won six Bundeslige titles , two DFB Cups and the European Cup ; following closely is Ottmar Hitzfeld , who won five Bundeslige titles , two DFB cups and the Champions League . The club 's least successful coach was Søren Lerby , who won less than a third of his matches in charge and presided over the club 's near @-@ relegation in the 1991 – 92 campaign .
The present manager , since July 2013 , is Pep Guardiola , Barcelona 's former coach . On 20 December , the club announced that Guardiola would not extend his contract beyond the end of the 2015 – 16 season . Carlo Ancelotti was presented as his successor .
= = Current board = =
For a list of former presidents see List of FC Bayern Munich records and statistics # Presidents
= = Statistics = =
= = = Recent seasons = = =
The season @-@ by @-@ season performance of the club over the last ten years :
As of 28 April 2015 . Rank |
= Rank in the Bundesliga ; P =
Played ; W |
= Win ; D =
Draw ; L |
= Loss ; F =
Goals for ; A |
= Goals against ; GD =
Goal difference ; Pts |
= Points ; Cup =
DFB @-@ Pokal ; EL |
= UEFA Europa League ; CL =
UEFA Champions League.in |
= Still in competition ; — =
Not attended ; 1R |
= 1st round ; 2R =
2nd round ; 3R |
= 3rd round ; R16 =
Round of sixteen ; QF |
= Quarterfinals ; SF =
Semifinals .
= = = In Europe = = =
As of 16 February 2015 :
= = Other departments = =
= = = FC Bayern II = = =
The reserve team serves mainly as the final stepping stone for promising young players before being promoted to the main team . Bayern II is coached by Heiko Vogel , assisted by Danny Schwarz and Rainer Ulrich . Since the inception of the Regionalliga in 1994 , the team played in the Regionalliga Süd , after playing in the Oberliga since 1978 . In the 2007 – 08 season they qualified for the newly founded 3 . Liga , where they lasted until 2011 , when they were relegated to the Regionalliga . This ended 33 consecutive years of playing in the highest league that the German Football Association permits the second team of a professional football team to play .
= = = Junior football = = =
The Bayern Munich Junior Team has produced some of Europe 's top football players , including Owen Hargreaves , Thomas Hitzlsperger , Philipp Lahm , Thomas Müller and Bastian Schweinsteiger . The division was founded in 1902 and is run by Werner Kern and Björn Andersson . It consists of eleven teams with more than 170 players , the youngest being under ten .
= = = Women 's football = = =
The women 's football team which is led by head coach Thomas Wörle features several members of the German national youth team . In the 2008 – 09 season the team finished second in the women 's Bundesliga . The division was founded in 1970 and consists of four teams with 90 players . Their greatest successes were winning the championships in 1976 and 2015 .
= = = Other sports = = =
Bayern has other departments for :
= = = = Basketball = = = =
since 1946 with 280 players in 19 teams.German Champion 1954 @,@ 1955 and 2014 , German Cup 1968
= = = = Bowling = = = =
since 1984 with 46 players in 4 teams
= = = = Chess = = = =
since 1908 with 97 players in 8 teams
European Club Cup 1992
German champion 1983 , 1985 , 1986 , 1989 , 1990 , 1991 , 1992 , 1993 and 1995
German Fast chess champion 1984 , 1985 , 1987 , 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , 1991 , 1992 , 1993 , 1994 and 1995 ( record )
= = = = Gymnastics = = = =
since 1974 with 35 gymnasts in 1 team
German champion 1983 , 1986 , 1987 and 1988
= = = = Handball = = = =
since 1945 with 3000 players in 10 teams
= = = = Table tennis = = = =
since 1946 with 160 players in 12 teams
= = = = Referees = = = =
since 1919 with 115 referees
= = = = Senior football = = = =
since 2001 with 135 players in 5 teams
|
= 18th Military Police Brigade ( United States ) =
The 18th Military Police Brigade is a military police brigade of the United States Army based in Grafenwoehr , Germany , with subordinate battalions and companies stationed throughout Germany . It provides law enforcement and force protection duties to United States Army Europe .
Activated during the Vietnam War , the Brigade oversaw all Military Police operations in the country for a large portion of the conflict , undertaking a wide variety of missions throughout the country and providing command and control for other military police groups in the region . After Vietnam , the Brigade deployed units to several other operations , namely Operation Desert Storm and Operation Provide Comfort . The brigade itself also deployed to Kosovo , supporting many of the units operating there attempting to settle unrest in the area due to the 1999 Bosnian War .
The brigade has also seen multiple deployments in the Global War on Terrorism to the Iraq War . Its primary responsibilities have been to train and equip the national Iraqi Police forces . The Brigade recently returned from its third deployment to Iraq , after serving for 15 months in the Baghdad area .
= = Organization = =
The 18th Military Police Brigade is a subordinate unit of the 21st Theater Sustainment Command and United States Army Europe . The brigade is headquartered in Sembach , Germany . The brigade has these subordinate units :
* 709th Military Police Battalion , Grafenwöhr
92nd Military Police Company , Sembach
527th Military Police Company , Hohenfels ; Ansbach ; Grafenwöhr
529th Military Police Company , Wiesbaden
554th Military Police Company , Stuttgart
615th Military Police Company , Grafenwöhr ; platoons in Vilseck
15th Engineer Battalion , Grafenwöhr
The Brigade is modular in nature , allowing it to take on additional units when deployed . Normally the Brigade only deploys with its Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) ; organic battalions and companies normally don 't deploy with the HHC .
= = History = =
= = = Vietnam War = = =
Members of the Headquarters and Headquarters detachment deployed to Vung Tau , South Vietnam on 7 September 1966 .
On 26 September 1966 , the Brigade assumed operational control over all non @-@ divisional military police units in the Republic of Vietnam . The Brigade was composed of three major subordinate elements ; the 16th Military Police Group at Nha Trang , and the 89th Military Police Group and 8th Military Police Group ( Criminal Investigation ) at Long Binh .
The 16th and 89th Military Police Groups were composed of seven military police battalions , containing a mixture of military police and infantry companies . The units were stationed throughout every corps tactical zone in the Republic of Vietnam , ranging from Da Nang in the north to Soc Trang in the south . The total strength of the Brigade numbered more than 5 @,@ 000 personnel .
Members of the Brigade performed a wide variety of missions including evacuation of prisoners of war , security of vessels and ports , convoy escort , security of vital installations and VIPs , maintenance of discipline , law and order , and direct support to combat operations . During the Tet Offensive , the 716th MP Battalion fought off a resolute Viet Cong unit determined to take over the US Embassy , while other 18th Brigade units performed similar duties in the Mekong Delta , Bien Hoa , the Central Highlands , and throughout the RVN . The Brigade completed its service in Vietnam and was deactivated on 20 March 1973 in Oakland , California .
= = = Cold War era = = =
The Brigade was redesignated on 16 August 1985 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 18th Military Police Brigade and activated in Frankfurt , West Germany . During 1990 – 1991 , battalions from the Brigade deployed to support VII Corps in Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm , and V Corps in Operation Provide Comfort . Elements of the Brigade have also deployed to support Operation Provide Promise and Operation Joint Endeavor in the former Yugoslavia .
Demonstrating its rapid deployability and ability to support V Corps and United States Army Europe contingency operations , every unit within the 18th Military Police Brigade deployed to the Balkans in 1999 . The 92nd Military Police Company , followed by the 527th Military Police Company deployed to Sarajevo , Bosnia to provide security in support of SFOR . The 615th Military Police Company deployed to Albania in April in support of Task Force Hawk . The Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment , 793rd Military Police Battalion and 127th and 630th Military Police Companies deployed in July to Kosovo in support of Task Force Falcon . The Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 18th Military Police Brigade deployed in July to Sarajevo in support of Task Force Summit . The HHD , 709th Military Police Battalion and 92nd and 212th Military Police Company deployed in November to Kosovo in support of Task Force Falcon . While in Kosovo , the battalions were the first ever Military Police battalions to conduct joint peacekeeping operations in general support of Russian , Greek , Jordanian , and Polish maneuver battalions .
= = = War on Terrorism = = =
In support of Operation Iraqi Freedom I , the 18th Military Police Brigade crossed into Iraq on 22 March 2003 . During its year of deployment , the brigade established Prisoner of War holding areas for over 3 @,@ 600 Iraqi prisoners and conducted main supply route patrolling over 2 @,@ 500 kilometers in southern Iraq . The Brigade entered Baghdad in April 2003 and began establishing the new Iraqi Police Service and rebuilding Iraqi police stations . From the beginning of Operation Iraqi Freedom until February 2004 the Brigade provided command and control for seven Military Police battalions , one Mechanized Infantry battalion , 30 Military Police companies , and two Law and Order detachments . The Brigade ’ s MPs conducted over 24 @,@ 000 combat patrols , apprehended over 2 @,@ 400 criminals , confiscated 7 @,@ 500 illegal weapons , and trained over 10 @,@ 000 Iraqi police officers . During their deployment , the Brigade recovered several precious artifacts , such as the Mask of Warka , which was recovered on 23 September 2003 . The brigade returned to Sandhofen in 2004 only to return to Iraq in 2007 .
The 127th and 630th Military Police Companies began serving in Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom II in mid @-@ 2007 . The 127th Company served in Iskandariyah , on patrol operations with local police . In November 2007 the Headquarters and Headquarters Company of the brigade and the 793rd Military Police Battalion deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom III . The brigade replaced the 89th Military Police Brigade which was assigned there previously . The transition ceremony for this command was held on 30 October as 100 soldiers from the brigade 's headquarters took charge of the 89th 's area of responsibility . They deployed to the Baghdad area , and took responsibility for the training of the Iraqi Police . The brigade is supporting Iraqi police logistics , personnel management , maintenance , budget , operations , training , leadership and judicial integration . Other training for Police units included proper search of vehicles , providing medical assistance to Iraqi civilians , as well as expanding the number of Iraqi police and improving their training overall . In theater , the brigade commanded over 5 @,@ 000 soldiers . Units that the Brigade assumed control of included the 153rd Military Police Company of the Delaware Army National Guard and the 223rd Military Police Company of the Kentucky Army National Guard . The brigade worked with the 35th Engineer Brigade to finish construction on the Furat Training Facility , the primary training facility for thousands of Iraqi police . The project was completed in February 2008 . In August 2008 , the brigade began facilitating the transition for the 8th Military Police Brigade , which was set to replace the 18th MP Brigade when its 15 @-@ month tour of duty ended . The brigade cased its colors on 2 December 2008 and began redeploying back to its home bases . The 18th MP brigade trained 20 @,@ 000 Iraqi police during its deployment , and lost 15 soldiers .
In addition to the brigade 's support to the War on Terrorism , many soldiers of the brigade continually conduct law enforcement and force protection duties in communities located throughout the central region of Europe .
= = Honors = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= Enron scandal =
The Enron scandal , revealed in October 2001 , eventually led to the bankruptcy of the Enron Corporation , an American energy company based in Houston , Texas , and the de facto dissolution of Arthur Andersen , which was one of the five largest audit and accountancy partnerships in the world . In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history at that time , Enron was cited as the biggest audit failure .
Enron was formed in 1985 by Kenneth Lay after merging Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth . Several years later , when Jeffrey Skilling was hired , he developed a staff of executives that , by the use of accounting loopholes , special purpose entities , and poor financial reporting , were able to hide billions of dollars in debt from failed deals and projects . Chief Financial Officer Andrew Fastow and other executives not only misled Enron 's board of directors and audit committee on high @-@ risk accounting practices , but also pressured Andersen to ignore the issues .
Enron shareholders filed a $ 40 billion lawsuit after the company 's stock price , which achieved a high of US $ 90 @.@ 75 per share in mid @-@ 2000 , plummeted to less than $ 1 by the end of November 2001 . The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) began an investigation , and rival Houston competitor Dynegy offered to purchase the company at a very low price . The deal failed , and on December 2 , 2001 , Enron filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code . Enron 's $ 63 @.@ 4 billion in assets made it the largest corporate bankruptcy in U.S. history until WorldCom 's bankruptcy the next year .
Many executives at Enron were indicted for a variety of charges and some were later sentenced to prison . Enron 's auditor , Arthur Andersen , was found guilty in a United States District Court of illegally destroying documents relevant to the SEC investigation which voided its license to audit public companies , effectively closing the business . By the time the ruling was overturned at the U.S. Supreme Court , the company had lost the majority of its customers and had ceased operating . Employees and shareholders received limited returns in lawsuits , despite losing billions in pensions and stock prices . As a consequence of the scandal , new regulations and legislation were enacted to expand the accuracy of financial reporting for public companies . One piece of legislation , the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act , increased penalties for destroying , altering , or fabricating records in federal investigations or for attempting to defraud shareholders . The act also increased the accountability of auditing firms to remain unbiased and independent of their clients .
= = Rise of Enron = =
In 1985 , Kenneth Lay merged the natural gas pipeline companies of Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth to form Enron . In the early 1990s , he helped to initiate the selling of electricity at market prices , and soon after , the United States Congress approved legislation deregulating the sale of natural gas . The resulting markets made it possible for traders such as Enron to sell energy at higher prices , thereby significantly increasing its revenue . After producers and local governments decried the resultant price volatility and asked for increased regulation , strong lobbying on the part of Enron and others prevented such regulation .
As Enron became the largest seller of natural gas in North America by 1992 , its trading of gas contracts earned $ 122 million ( before interest and taxes ) , the second largest contributor to the company 's net income . The November 1999 creation of the EnronOnline trading website allowed the company to better manage its contracts trading business .
In an attempt to achieve further growth , Enron pursued a diversification strategy . The company owned and operated a variety of assets including gas pipelines , electricity plants , pulp and paper plants , water plants , and broadband services across the globe . The corporation also gained additional revenue by trading contracts for the same array of products and services with which it was involved .
Enron 's stock increased from the start of the 1990s until year @-@ end 1998 by 311 % , only modestly higher than the average rate of growth in the Standard & Poor 500 index . However , the stock increased by 56 % in 1999 and a further 87 % in 2000 , compared to a 20 % increase and a 10 % decrease for the index during the same years . By December 31 , 2000 , Enron 's stock was priced at $ 83 @.@ 13 and its market capitalization exceeded $ 60 billion , 70 times earnings and six times book value , an indication of the stock market 's high expectations about its future prospects . In addition , Enron was rated the most innovative large company in America in Fortune 's Most Admired Companies survey .
= = Causes of downfall = =
Enron 's complex financial statements were confusing to shareholders and analysts . In addition , its complex business model and unethical practices required that the company use accounting limitations to misrepresent earnings and modify the balance sheet to indicate favorable performance .
The combination of these issues later resulted in the bankruptcy of the company , and the majority of them were perpetuated by the indirect knowledge or direct actions of Lay , Jeffrey Skilling , Andrew Fastow , and other executives . Lay served as the chairman of the company in its last few years , and approved of the actions of Skilling and Fastow although he did not always inquire about the details . Skilling constantly focused on meeting Wall Street expectations , advocated the use of mark @-@ to @-@ market accounting ( accounting based on market value , which was then inflated ) and pressured Enron executives to find new ways to hide its debt . Fastow and other executives " created off @-@ balance @-@ sheet vehicles , complex financing structures , and deals so bewildering that few people could understand them . "
= = = Revenue recognition = = =
Enron and other energy suppliers earned profits by providing services such as wholesale trading and risk management in addition to building and maintaining electric power plants , natural gas pipelines , storage , and processing facilities . When accepting the risk of buying and selling products , merchants are allowed to report the selling price as revenues and the products ' costs as cost of goods sold . In contrast , an " agent " provides a service to the customer , but does not take the same risks as merchants for buying and selling . Service providers , when classified as agents , are able to report trading and brokerage fees as revenue , although not for the full value of the transaction .
Although trading companies such as Goldman Sachs and Merrill Lynch used the conventional " agent model " for reporting revenue ( where only the trading or brokerage fee would be reported as revenue ) , Enron instead selected to report the entire value of each of its trades as revenue . This " merchant model " was considered much more aggressive in the accounting interpretation than the agent model . Enron 's method of reporting inflated trading revenue was later adopted by other companies in the energy trading industry in an attempt to stay competitive with the company 's large increase in revenue . Other energy companies such as Duke Energy , Reliant Energy , and Dynegy joined Enron in the wealthiest 50 of the Fortune 500 mainly due to their adoption of the same trading revenue accounting as Enron .
Between 1996 and 2000 , Enron 's revenues increased by more than 750 % , rising from $ 13 @.@ 3 billion in 1996 to $ 100 @.@ 8 billion in 2000 . This extensive expansion of 65 % per year was unprecedented in any industry , including the energy industry which typically considered growth of 2 – 3 % per year to be respectable . For just the first nine months of 2001 , Enron reported $ 138 @.@ 7 billion in revenues , which placed the company at the sixth position on the Fortune Global 500 .
= = = Mark @-@ to @-@ market accounting = = =
In Enron 's natural gas business , the accounting had been fairly straightforward : in each time period , the company listed actual costs of supplying the gas and actual revenues received from selling it . However , when Skilling joined the company , he demanded that the trading business adopt mark @-@ to @-@ market accounting , citing that it would represent " true economic value . " Enron became the first non @-@ financial company to use the method to account for its complex long @-@ term contracts . Mark @-@ to @-@ market accounting requires that once a long @-@ term contract was signed , income is estimated as the present value of net future cash flow . Often , the viability of these contracts and their related costs were difficult to estimate . Due to the large discrepancies of attempting to match profits and cash , investors were typically given false or misleading reports . While using the method , income from projects could be recorded , although they might not have ever received the money , and in turn increasing financial earnings on the books . However , in future years , the profits could not be included , so new and additional income had to be included from more projects to develop additional growth to appease investors . As one Enron competitor stated , " If you accelerate your income , then you have to keep doing more and more deals to show the same or rising income . " Despite potential pitfalls , the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) approved the accounting method for Enron in its trading of natural gas futures contracts on January 30 , 1992 . However , Enron later expanded its use to other areas in the company to help it meet Wall Street projections .
For one contract , in July 2000 , Enron and Blockbuster Video signed a 20 @-@ year agreement to introduce on @-@ demand entertainment to various U.S. cities by year @-@ end . After several pilot projects , Enron recognized estimated profits of more than $ 110 million from the deal , even though analysts questioned the technical viability and market demand of the service . When the network failed to work , Blockbuster withdrew from the contract . Enron continued to recognize future profits , even though the deal resulted in a loss .
= = = Special purpose entities = = =
Enron used special purpose entities — limited partnerships or companies created to fulfill a temporary or specific purpose to fund or manage risks associated with specific assets . The company elected to disclose minimal details on its use of " special purpose entities " . These shell companies were created by a sponsor , but funded by independent equity investors and debt financing . For financial reporting purposes , a series of rules dictate whether a special purpose entity is a separate entity from the sponsor . In total , by 2001 , Enron had used hundreds of special purpose entities to hide its debt . Enron used a number of special purpose entities , such as partnerships in its Thomas and Condor tax shelters , financial asset securitization investment trusts ( FASITs ) in the Apache deal , real estate mortgage investment conduits ( REMICs ) in the Steele deal , and REMICs and real estate investment trusts ( REITs ) in the Cochise deal .
The special purpose entities were used for more than just circumventing accounting conventions . As a result of one violation , Enron 's balance sheet understated its liabilities and overstated its equity , and its earnings were overstated . Enron disclosed to its shareholders that it had hedged downside risk in its own illiquid investments using special purpose entities . However , investors were oblivious to the fact that the special purpose entities were actually using the company 's own stock and financial guarantees to finance these hedges . This prevented Enron from being protected from the downside risk . Notable examples of special purpose entities that Enron employed were JEDI , Chewco , Whitewing , and LJM .
= = = = JEDI and Chewco = = = =
In 1993 , Enron established a joint venture in energy investments with CalPERS , the California state pension fund , called the Joint Energy Development Investments ( JEDI ) . In 1997 , Skilling , serving as Chief Operating Officer ( COO ) , asked CalPERS to join Enron in a separate investment . CalPERS was interested in the idea , but only if it could be terminated as a partner in JEDI . However , Enron did not want to show any debt from assuming CalPERS ' stake in JEDI on its balance sheet . Chief Financial Officer ( CFO ) Fastow developed the special purpose entity Chewco Investments limited partnership ( L.P. ) which raised debt guaranteed by Enron and was used to acquire CalPERS 's joint venture stake for $ 383 million . Because of Fastow 's organization of Chewco , JEDI 's losses were kept off of Enron 's balance sheet .
In autumn 2001 , CalPERS and Enron 's arrangement was discovered , which required the discontinuation of Enron 's prior accounting method for Chewco and JEDI . This disqualification revealed that Enron 's reported earnings from 1997 to mid @-@ 2001 would need to be reduced by $ 405 million and that the company 's indebtedness would increase by $ 628 million .
= = = = Whitewing = = = =
Whitewing was the name of a special purpose entity used as a financing method by Enron . In December 1997 , with funding of $ 579 million provided by Enron and $ 500 million by an outside investor , Whitewing Associates L.P. was formed . Two years later , the entity 's arrangement was changed so that it would no longer be consolidated with Enron and be counted on the company 's balance sheet . Whitewing was used to purchase Enron assets , including stakes in power plants , pipelines , stocks , and other investments . Between 1999 and 2001 , Whitewing bought assets from Enron worth $ 2 billion , using Enron stock as collateral . Although the transactions were approved by the Enron board , the asset transfers were not true sales and should have been treated instead as loans .
= = = = LJM and Raptors = = = =
In 1999 , Fastow formulated two limited partnerships : LJM Cayman . L.P. ( LJM1 ) and LJM2 Co @-@ Investment L.P. ( LJM2 ) , for the purpose of buying Enron 's poorly performing stocks and stakes to improve its financial statements . LJM 1 and 2 were created solely to serve as the outside equity investor needed for the special purpose entities that were being used by Enron . Fastow had to go before the board of directors to receive an exemption from Enron 's code of ethics ( as he had the title of CFO ) in order to manage the companies . The two partnerships were funded with around $ 390 million provided by Wachovia , J.P. Morgan Chase , Credit Suisse First Boston , Citigroup , and other investors . Merrill Lynch , which marketed the equity , also contributed $ 22 million to fund the entities .
Enron transferred to " Raptor I @-@ IV " , four LJM @-@ related special purpose entities named after the velociraptors in Jurassic Park , more than " $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in assets , including millions of shares of Enron common stock and long term rights to purchase millions more shares , plus $ 150 million of Enron notes payable " as disclosed in the company 's financial statement footnotes . The special purpose entities had been used to pay for all of this using the entities ' debt instruments . The footnotes also declared that the instruments ' face amount totaled $ 1 @.@ 5 billion , and the entities notional amount of $ 2 @.@ 1 billion had been used to enter into derivative contracts with Enron .
Enron capitalized the Raptors , and , in a manner similar to the accounting employed when a company issues stock at a public offering , then booked the notes payable issued as assets on its balance sheet while increasing the shareholders ' equity for the same amount . This treatment later became an issue for Enron and its auditor Arthur Andersen as removing it from the balance sheet resulted in a $ 1 @.@ 2 billion decrease in net shareholders ' equity .
Eventually the derivative contracts worth $ 2 @.@ 1 billion lost significant value . Swaps were established at the time the stock price achieved its maximum . During the ensuing year , the value of the portfolio under the swaps fell by $ 1 @.@ 1 billion as the stock prices decreased ( the loss of value meant that the special purpose entities technically now owed Enron $ 1 @.@ 1 billion by the contracts ) . Enron , which used a " mark @-@ to @-@ market " accounting method , claimed a $ 500 million gain on the swap contracts in its 2000 annual report . The gain was responsible for offsetting its stock portfolio losses and was attributed to nearly a third of Enron 's earnings for 2000 ( before it was properly restated in 2001 ) .
= = = Corporate governance = = =
On paper , Enron had a model board of directors comprising predominantly of outsiders with significant ownership stakes and a talented audit committee . In its 2000 review of best corporate boards , Chief Executive included Enron among its five best boards . Even with its complex corporate governance and network of intermediaries , Enron was still able to " attract large sums of capital to fund a questionable business model , conceal its true performance through a series of accounting and financing maneuvers , and hype its stock to unsustainable levels . "
= = = = Executive compensation = = = =
Although Enron 's compensation and performance management system was designed to retain and reward its most valuable employees , the system contributed to a dysfunctional corporate culture that became obsessed with short @-@ term earnings to maximize bonuses . Employees constantly tried to start deals , often disregarding the quality of cash flow or profits , in order to get a better rating for their performance review . Additionally , accounting results were recorded as soon as possible to keep up with the company 's stock price . This practice helped ensure deal @-@ makers and executives received large cash bonuses and stock options .
The company was constantly emphasizing its stock price . Management was compensated extensively using stock options , similar to other U.S. companies . This policy of stock option awards caused management to create expectations of rapid growth in efforts to give the appearance of reported earnings to meet Wall Street 's expectations . The stock ticker was located in lobbies , elevators , and on company computers . At budget meetings , Skilling would develop target earnings by asking " What earnings do you need to keep our stock price up ? " and that number would be used , even if it was not feasible . At December 31 , 2000 , Enron had 96 million shares outstanding as stock option plans ( approximately 13 % of common shares outstanding ) . Enron 's proxy statement stated that , within three years , these awards were expected to be exercised . Using Enron 's January 2001 stock price of $ 83 @.@ 13 and the directors ’ beneficial ownership reported in the 2001 proxy , the value of director stock ownership was $ 659 million for Lay , and $ 174 million for Skilling .
Skilling believed that if employees were constantly worried about cost , it would hinder original thinking . As a result , extravagant spending was rampant throughout the company , especially among the executives . Employees had large expense accounts and many executives were paid sometimes twice as much as competitors . In 1998 , the top 200 highest @-@ paid employees received $ 193 million from salaries , bonuses , and stock . Two years later , the figure jumped to $ 1 @.@ 4 billion .
= = = = Risk management = = = =
Before its scandal , Enron was lauded for its sophisticated financial risk management tools . Risk management was crucial to Enron not only because of its regulatory environment , but also because of its business plan . Enron established long @-@ term fixed commitments which needed to be hedged to prepare for the invariable fluctuation of future energy prices . Enron 's bankruptcy downfall was attributed to its reckless use of derivatives and special purpose entities . By hedging its risks with special purpose entities which it owned , Enron retained the risks associated with the transactions . This arrangement had Enron implementing hedges with itself .
Enron 's aggressive accounting practices were not hidden from the board of directors , as later learned by a Senate subcommittee . The board was informed of the rationale for using the Whitewing , LJM , and Raptor transactions , and after approving them , received status updates on the entities ' operations . Although not all of Enron 's widespread improper accounting practices were revealed to the board , the practices were dependent on board decisions . Even though Enron extensively relied on derivatives for its business , the company 's Finance Committee and board did not have enough experience with derivatives to understand what they were being told . The Senate subcommittee argued that had there been a detailed understanding of how the derivatives were organized , the board would have prevented their use .
= = = = Financial audit = = = =
Enron 's auditor firm , Arthur Andersen , was accused of applying reckless standards in its audits because of a conflict of interest over the significant consulting fees generated by Enron . During 2000 , Arthur Andersen earned $ 25 million in audit fees and $ 27 million in consulting fees ( this amount accounted for roughly 27 % of the audit fees of public clients for Arthur Andersen 's Houston office ) . The auditor 's methods were questioned as either being completed solely to receive its annual fees or for its lack of expertise in properly reviewing Enron 's revenue recognition , special entities , derivatives , and other accounting practices .
Enron hired numerous Certified Public Accountants ( CPAs ) as well as accountants who had worked on developing accounting rules with the Financial Accounting Standards Board ( FASB ) . The accountants searched for new ways to save the company money , including capitalizing on loopholes found in Generally Accepted Accounting Principles ( GAAP ) , the accounting industry 's standards . One Enron accountant revealed " We tried to aggressively use the literature [ GAAP ] to our advantage . All the rules create all these opportunities . We got to where we did because we exploited that weakness . "
Andersen 's auditors were pressured by Enron 's management to defer recognizing the charges from the special purpose entities as its credit risks became known . Since the entities would never return a profit , accounting guidelines required that Enron should take a write @-@ off , where the value of the entity was removed from the balance sheet at a loss . To pressure Andersen into meeting Enron 's earnings expectations , Enron would occasionally allow accounting companies Ernst & Young or PricewaterhouseCoopers to complete accounting tasks to create the illusion of hiring a new company to replace Andersen . Although Andersen was equipped with internal controls to protect against conflicted incentives of local partners , it failed to prevent conflict of interest . In one case , Andersen 's Houston office , which performed the Enron audit , was able to overrule any critical reviews of Enron 's accounting decisions by Andersen 's Chicago partner . In addition , after news of U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) investigations of Enron were made public , Andersen would later shred several tons of relevant documents and delete nearly 30 @,@ 000 e @-@ mails and computer files , causing accusations of a cover @-@ up .
Revelations concerning Andersen 's overall performance led to the break @-@ up of the firm , and to the following assessment by the Powers Committee ( appointed by Enron 's board to look into the firm 's accounting in October 2001 ) : " The evidence available to us suggests that Andersen did not fulfill its professional responsibilities in connection with its audits of Enron 's financial statements , or its obligation to bring to the attention of Enron 's Board ( or the Audit and Compliance Committee ) concerns about Enron 's internal contracts over the related @-@ party transactions " .
= = = = Audit committee = = = =
Corporate audit committees usually meet just a few times during the year , and their members typically have only modest experience with accounting and finance . Enron 's audit committee had more expertise than many . It included :
Robert Jaedicke of Stanford University , a widely respected accounting professor and former dean of Stanford Business School
John Mendelsohn , President of the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center
Paulo Pereira , former president and CEO of the State Bank of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil
John Wakeham , former United Kingdom Secretary for Energy
Ronnie Chan , a Hong Kong businessman
Wendy Gramm , former Chair of U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission
Enron 's audit committee was later criticized for its brief meetings that would cover large amounts of material . In one meeting on February 12 , 2001 , the committee met for an hour and a half . Enron 's audit committee did not have the technical knowledge to question the auditors properly on accounting issues related to the company 's special purpose entities . The committee was also unable to question the company 's management due to pressures on the committee . The United States Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Governmental Affairs ' report accused the board members of allowing conflicts of interest to impede their duties as monitoring the company 's accounting practices . When Enron 's scandal became public , the audit committee 's conflicts of interest were regarded with suspicion .
= = = = Ethical and political analyses = = = =
Commentators attributed the mismanagement behind Enron ’ s fall to a variety of ethical and political @-@ economic causes . Ethical explanations centered on executive greed and hubris , a lack of corporate social responsibility , situation ethics , and get @-@ it @-@ done business pragmatism . Political @-@ economic explanations cited post @-@ 1970s deregulation , and inadequate staff and funding for regulatory oversight . A more libertarian analysis maintained that Enron ’ s collapse resulted from the company ’ s reliance on political lobbying , rent @-@ seeking , and the gaming of regulations .
= = = Other accounting issues = = =
Enron made a habit of booking costs of cancelled projects as assets , with the rationale that no official letter had stated that the project was cancelled . This method was known as " the snowball " , and although it was initially dictated that such practices be used only for projects worth less than $ 90 million , it was later increased to $ 200 million .
In 1998 , when analysts were given a tour of the Enron Energy Services office , they were impressed with how the employees were working so vigorously . In reality , Skilling had moved other employees to the office from other departments ( instructing them to pretend to work hard ) to create the appearance that the division was larger than it was . This ruse was used several times to fool analysts about the progress of different areas of Enron to help improve the stock price .
= = Timeline of downfall = =
In February 2001 , Chief Accounting Officer Rick Causey told budget managers : " From an accounting standpoint , this will be our easiest year ever . We 've got 2001 in the bag . " On March 5 , Bethany McLean 's Fortune article Is Enron Overpriced ? questioned how Enron could maintain its high stock value , which was trading at 55 times its earnings . She argued that analysts and investors did not know exactly how Enron was earning its income . McLean was first drawn to the company 's situation after an analyst suggested she view the company 's 10 @-@ K report , where she found " strange transactions " , " erratic cash flow " , and " huge debt . " She telephoned Skilling to discuss her findings prior to publishing the article , but he called her " unethical " for not properly researching the company . Fastow cited two Fortune reporters that Enron could not reveal earnings details as the company had more than 1 @,@ 200 trading books for assorted commodities and did " ... not want anyone to know what 's on those books . We don 't want to tell anyone where we 're making money . "
In a conference call on April 17 , 2001 , then @-@ Chief Executive Officer ( CEO ) Skilling verbally attacked Wall Street analyst Richard Grubman , who questioned Enron 's unusual accounting practice during a recorded conference call . When Grubman complained that Enron was the only company that could not release a balance sheet along with its earnings statements , Skilling replied " Well , thank you very much , we appreciate that ... asshole . " This became an inside joke among many Enron employees , mocking Grubman for his perceived meddling rather than Skilling 's offensiveness , with slogans such as " Ask Why , Asshole " , a variation on Enron 's official slogan " Ask why " . However , Skilling 's comment was met with dismay and astonishment by press and public , as he had previously disdained criticism of Enron coolly or humorously .
By the late 1990s Enron 's stock was trading for $ 80 – 90 per share , and few seemed to concern themselves with the opacity of the company 's financial disclosures . In mid @-@ July 2001 , Enron reported revenues of $ 50 @.@ 1 billion , almost triple year @-@ to @-@ date , and beating analysts ' estimates by 3 cents a share . Despite this , Enron 's profit margin had stayed at a modest average of about 2 @.@ 1 % , and its share price had decreased by more than 30 % since the same quarter of 2000 .
As time passed , a number of serious concerns confronted the company . Enron had recently faced several serious operational challenges , namely logistical difficulties in operating a new broadband communications trading unit , and the losses from constructing the Dabhol Power project , a large power plant in India . There was also increasing criticism of the company for the role that its subsidiary Enron Energy Services had in the California electricity crisis of 2000 @-@ 2001 .
On August 14 , Skilling announced he was resigning his position as CEO after only six months . Skilling had long served as president and COO before being promoted to CEO . Skilling cited personal reasons for leaving the company . Observers noted that in the months before his exit , Skilling had sold at minimum 450 @,@ 000 shares of Enron at a value of around $ 33 million ( though he still owned over a million shares at the date of his departure ) . Nevertheless , Lay , who was serving as chairman at Enron , assured surprised market watchers that there would be " no change in the performance or outlook of the company going forward " from Skilling 's departure . Lay announced he himself would re @-@ assume the position of chief executive officer .
The next day , however , Skilling admitted that a very significant reason for his departure was Enron 's faltering price in the stock market . The economist Paul Krugman asserted in his New York Times column that Enron was an illustration of the consequences that occur from the deregulation and commodification of things such as energy . A few days later , in a letter to the editor , Kenneth Lay defended Enron and the philosophy of the company :
The broader goal of [ Krugman 's ] latest attack on Enron appears to be to discredit the free @-@ market system , a system that entrusts people to make choices and enjoy the fruits of their labor , skill , intellect and heart . He would apparently rely on a system of monopolies controlled or sponsored by government to make choices for people . We disagree , finding ourselves less trusting of the integrity and good faith of such institutions and their leaders .
The example Mr. Krugman cites of " financialization " run amok ( the electricity market in California ) is the product of exactly his kind of system , with active government intervention at every step . Indeed , the only winners in the California fiasco were the government @-@ owned utilities of Los Angeles , the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia . The disaster that squandered the wealth of California was born of regulation by the few , not by markets of the many .
On August 15 , Sherron Watkins , vice president for corporate development , sent an anonymous letter to Lay warning him about the company 's accounting practices . One statement in the letter said : " I am incredibly nervous that we will implode in a wave of accounting scandals . " Watkins contacted a friend who worked for Arthur Andersen and he drafted a memorandum to give to the audit partners about the points she raised . On August 22 , Watkins met individually with Lay and gave him a six @-@ page letter further explaining Enron 's accounting issues . Lay questioned her as to whether she had told anyone outside of the company and then vowed to have the company 's law firm , Vinson & Elkins , review the issues , although she argued that using the law firm would present a conflict of interest . Lay consulted with other executives , and although they wanted to dismiss Watkins ( as Texas law did not protect company whistleblowers ) , they decided against it to prevent a lawsuit . On October 15 , Vinson & Elkins announced that Enron had done nothing wrong in its accounting practices as Andersen had approved each issue .
= = = Investors ' confidence declines = = =
By the end of August 2001 , his company 's stock value still falling , Lay named Greg Whalley , president and COO of Enron Wholesale Services and Mark Frevert , to positions in the chairman 's office . Some observers suggested that Enron 's investors were in significant need of reassurance , not only because the company 's business was difficult to understand ( even " indecipherable " ) but also because it was difficult to properly describe the company in financial statements . One analyst stated " it 's really hard for analysts to determine where [ Enron ] are making money in a given quarter and where they are losing money . " Lay accepted that Enron 's business was very complex , but asserted that analysts would " never get all the information they want " to satisfy their curiosity . He also explained that the complexity of the business was due largely to tax strategies and position @-@ hedging . Lay 's efforts seemed to meet with limited success ; by September 9 , one prominent hedge fund manager noted that " [ Enron ] stock is trading under a cloud . " The sudden departure of Skilling combined with the opacity of Enron 's accounting books made proper assessment difficult for Wall Street . In addition , the company admitted to repeatedly using " related @-@ party transactions , " which some feared could be too @-@ easily used to transfer losses that might otherwise appear on Enron 's own balance sheet . A particularly troubling aspect of this technique was that several of the " related @-@ party " entities had been or were being controlled by CFO Fastow .
After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , media attention shifted away from the company and its troubles ; a little less than a month later Enron announced its intention to begin the process of selling its lower @-@ margin assets in favor of its core businesses of gas and electricity trading . This policy included selling Portland General Electric to another Oregon utility , Northwest Natural Gas , for about $ 1 @.@ 9 billion in cash and stock , and possibly selling its 65 % stake in the Dabhol project in India .
= = = Restructuring losses and SEC investigation = = =
On October 16 , 2001 , Enron announced that restatements to its financial statements for years 1997 to 2000 were necessary to correct accounting violations . The restatements for the period reduced earnings by $ 613 million ( or 23 % of reported profits during the period ) , increased liabilities at the end of 2000 by $ 628 million ( 6 % of reported liabilities and 5 @.@ 5 % of reported equity ) , and reduced equity at the end of 2000 by $ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( 10 % of reported equity ) . Additionally , in January Jeff Skilling had asserted that the broadband unit alone was worth $ 35 billion , a claim also mistrusted . An analyst at Standard & Poor 's said , " I don 't think anyone knows what the broadband operation is worth . "
Enron 's management team claimed the losses were mostly due to investment losses , along with charges such as about $ 180 million in money spent restructuring the company 's troubled broadband trading unit . In a statement , Lay revealed , " After a thorough review of our businesses , we have decided to take these charges to clear away issues that have clouded the performance and earnings potential of our core energy businesses . " Some analysts were unnerved . David Fleischer at Goldman Sachs , an analyst termed previously ' one of the company 's strongest supporters ' asserted that the Enron management " ... lost credibility and have to reprove themselves . They need to convince investors these earnings are real , that the company is for real and that growth will be realized . "
Fastow disclosed to Enron 's board of directors on October 22 that he earned $ 30 million from compensation arrangements when managing the LJM limited partnerships . That day , the share price of Enron decreased to $ 20 @.@ 65 , down $ 5 @.@ 40 in one day , after the announcement by the SEC that it was investigating several suspicious deals struck by Enron , characterizing them as " some of the most opaque transactions with insiders ever seen " . Attempting to explain the billion @-@ dollar charge and calm investors , Enron 's disclosures spoke of " share settled costless collar arrangements , " " derivative instruments which eliminated the contingent nature of existing restricted forward contracts , " and strategies that served " to hedge certain merchant investments and other assets . " Such puzzling phraseology left many analysts feeling ignorant about just how Enron managed its business . Regarding the SEC investigation , chairman and CEO Lay said , " We will cooperate fully with the S.E.C. and look forward to the opportunity to put any concern about these transactions to rest . "
Two days later , on October 25 , despite his reassurances days earlier , Lay dismissed Fastow from his position , citing " In my continued discussions with the financial community , it became clear to me that restoring investor confidence would require us to replace Andy as CFO . " However , with Skilling and Fastow now both departed , some analysts feared that revealing the company 's practices would be made all the more difficult . Enron 's stock was now trading at $ 16 @.@ 41 , having lost half its value in a little more than a week .
On October 27 the company began buying back all its commercial paper , valued at around $ 3 @.@ 3 billion , in an effort to calm investor fears about Enron 's supply of cash . Enron financed the re @-@ purchase by depleting its lines of credit at several banks . While the company 's debt rating was still considered investment @-@ grade , its bonds were trading at levels slightly less , making future sales problematic .
As the month came to a close , serious concerns were being raised by some observers regarding Enron 's possible manipulation of accepted accounting rules ; however , analysis was claimed to be impossible based on the incomplete information provided by Enron . Industry analysts feared that Enron was the new Long @-@ Term Capital Management , the hedge fund whose bankruptcy in 1998 threatened systemic failure of the international financial markets . Enron 's tremendous presence worried some about the consequences of the company 's possible bankruptcy . Enron executives accepted questions in written form only .
= = = Credit rating downgrade = = =
The main short @-@ term danger to Enron 's survival at the end of October 2001 seemed to be its credit rating . It was reported at the time that Moody 's and Fitch , two of the three biggest credit @-@ rating agencies , had slated Enron for review for possible downgrade . Such a downgrade would force Enron to issue millions of shares of stock to cover loans it had guaranteed , which would decrease the value of existing stock further . Additionally , all manner of companies began reviewing their existing contracts with Enron , especially in the long term , in the event that Enron 's rating were lowered below investment grade , a possible hindrance for future transactions .
Analysts and observers continued their complaints regarding the difficulty or impossibility of properly assessing a company whose financial statements were so cryptic . Some feared that no one at Enron apart from Skilling and Fastow could completely explain years of mysterious transactions . " You 're getting way over my head , " said Lay during late August 2001 in response to detailed questions about Enron 's business , a reaction that worried analysts .
On October 29 , responding to growing concerns that Enron might have insufficient cash on hand , news spread that Enron was seeking a further $ 1 – 2 billion in financing from banks . The next day , as feared , Moody 's lowered Enron 's credit rating from Baa1 to Baa2 , two levels above junk status . Standard & Poor 's also lowered Enron 's rating to BBB + , the equivalent of Moody 's rating . Moody 's also warned that it would downgrade Enron 's commercial paper rating , the consequence of which would likely prevent the company from finding the further financing it sought to keep solvent .
November began with the disclosure that the SEC was now pursuing a formal investigation , prompted by questions related to Enron 's dealings with " related parties " . Enron 's board also announced that it would commission a special committee to investigate the transactions , directed by William C. Powers , the dean of the University of Texas law school . The next day , an editorial in The New York Times demanded an " aggressive " investigation into the matter . Enron was able to secure an additional $ 1 billion in financing from cross @-@ town rival Dynegy on November 2 , but the news was not universally admired in that the debt was secured by assets from the company 's valuable Northern Natural Gas and Transwestern Pipeline .
= = = Proposed buyout by Dynegy = = =
Sources claimed that Enron was planning to explain its business practices more fully within the coming days , as a confidence @-@ building gesture . Enron 's stock was now trading at around $ 7 , as investors worried that the company would not be able to find a buyer .
After it received a wide spectrum of rejections , Enron management apparently found a buyer when the board of Dynegy , another energy trader based in Houston , voted late at night on November 7 to acquire Enron at a very low price of about $ 8 billion in stock . Chevron Texaco , which at the time owned about a quarter of Dynegy , agreed to provide Enron with $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in cash , specifically $ 1 billion at first and the rest when the deal was completed . Dynegy would also be required to assume nearly $ 13 billion of debt , plus any other debt hitherto occluded by the Enron management 's secretive business practices , possibly as much as $ 10 billion in " hidden " debt . Dynegy and Enron confirmed their deal on November 8 , 2001 .
Commentators remarked on the different corporate cultures between Dynegy and Enron , and on the " straight @-@ talking " personality of the CEO of Dynegy , Charles Watson . Some wondered if Enron 's troubles had not simply been the result of innocent accounting errors . By November , Enron was asserting that the billion @-@ plus " one @-@ time charges " disclosed in October should in reality have been $ 200 million , with the rest of the amount simply corrections of dormant accounting mistakes . Many feared other " mistakes " and restatements might yet be revealed .
Another major correction of Enron 's earnings was announced on November 9 , with a reduction of $ 591 million of the stated revenue of years 1997 – 2000 . The charges were said to come largely from two special purpose partnerships ( JEDI and Chewco ) . The corrections resulted in the virtual elimination of profit for fiscal year 1997 , with significant reductions for the other years . Despite this disclosure , Dynegy declared it still intended to purchase Enron . Both companies were said to be anxious to receive an official assessment of the proposed sale from Moody 's and S & P presumably to understand the effect the completion of any buyout transaction would have on Dynegy and Enron 's credit rating . In addition , concerns were raised regarding antitrust regulatory restrictions resulting in possible divestiture , along with what to some observers were the radically different corporate cultures of Enron and Dynegy .
Both companies promoted the deal aggressively , and some observers were hopeful ; Watson was praised for attempting to create the largest company on the energy market . At the time , Watson said : " We feel [ Enron ] is a very solid company with plenty of capacity to withstand whatever happens the next few months . " One analyst called the deal " a whopper [ ... ] a very good deal financially , certainly should be a good deal strategically , and provides some immediate balance @-@ sheet backstop for Enron . "
Credit issues were becoming more critical , however . Around the time the buyout was made public , Moody 's and S & P both reduced Enron 's rating to just one notch above junk status . Were the company 's rating to fall below investment @-@ grade , its ability to trade would be severely limited if there was a reduction or elimination of its credit lines with competitors . In a conference call , S & P affirmed that , were Enron not to be bought , S & P would reduce its rating to low BB or high B , ratings noted as being within junk status . Additionally , many traders had limited their involvement with Enron , or stopped doing business altogether , fearing more bad news . Watson again attempted to re @-@ assure , attesting at a presentation to investors that there was " nothing wrong with Enron 's business " . He also acknowledged that remunerative steps ( in the form of more stock options ) would have to be taken to redress the animosity of many Enron employees for management after it was revealed that Lay and other officials had sold hundreds of millions of dollars ' worth of stock during the months prior to the crisis . The situation was not helped by the disclosure that Lay , his " reputation in tatters " , stood to receive a payment of $ 60 million as a change @-@ of @-@ control fee subsequent to the Dynegy acquisition , while many Enron employees had seen their retirement accounts , which were based largely on Enron stock , ravaged as the price decreased 90 % in a year . An official at a company owned by Enron stated " We had some married couples who both worked who lost as much as $ 800 @,@ 000 or $ 900 @,@ 000 . It pretty much wiped out every employee 's savings plan . "
Watson assured investors that the true nature of Enron 's business had been made apparent to him : " We have comfort there is not another shoe to drop . If there is no shoe , this is a phenomenally good transaction . " Watson further asserted that Enron 's energy trading part alone was worth the price Dynegy was paying for the whole company .
By mid @-@ November , Enron announced it was planning to sell about $ 8 billion worth of underperforming assets , along with a general plan to reduce its scale for the sake of financial stability . On November 19 Enron disclosed to the public further evidence of its critical state of affairs . Most pressingly that the company had debt repayment obligations in the range of $ 9 billion by the end of 2002 . Such debts were " vastly in excess " of its available cash . Also , the success of measures to preserve its solvency were not guaranteed , specifically as regarded asset sales and debt refinancing . In a statement , Enron revealed " An adverse outcome with respect to any of these matters would likely have a material adverse impact on Enron 's ability to continue as a going concern . "
Two days later , on November 21 , Wall Street expressed serious doubts that Dynegy would proceed with its deal at all , or would seek to radically renegotiate . Furthermore , Enron revealed in a 10 @-@ Q filing that almost all the money it had recently borrowed for purposes including buying its commercial paper , or about $ 5 billion , had been exhausted in just 50 days . Analysts were unnerved at the revelation , especially since Dynegy was reported to have also been unaware of Enron 's rate of cash use . In order to end the proposed buyout , Dynegy would need to legally demonstrate a " material change " in the circumstances of the transaction ; as late as November 22 , sources close to Dynegy were skeptical that the latest revelations constituted sufficient grounds .
The SEC announced it had filed civil fraud complaints against Andersen . A few days later , sources claimed Enron and Dynegy were renegotiating the terms of their arrangement . Dynegy now demanded Enron agree to be bought for $ 4 billion rather than the previous $ 8 billion . Observers were reporting difficulties in ascertaining which of Enron 's operations , if any , were profitable . Reports described an en masse shift of business to Enron 's competitors for the sake of risk exposure reduction .
= = = Bankruptcy = = =
On November 28 , 2001 , Enron 's two worst @-@ possible outcomes came true : Dynegy Inc. unilaterally disengaged from the proposed acquisition of the company , and Enron 's credit rating was reduced to junk status . Watson later said " At the end , you couldn 't give it [ Enron ] to me . " The company had very little cash with which to operate , let alone satisfy enormous debts . Its stock price fell to $ 0 @.@ 61 at the end of the day 's trading . One editorial observer wrote that " Enron is now shorthand for the perfect financial storm . "
Systemic consequences were felt , as Enron 's creditors and other energy trading companies suffered the loss of several percentage points . Some analysts felt Enron 's failure indicated the risks of the post @-@ September 11 economy , and encouraged traders to lock in profits where they could . The question now became how to determine the total exposure of the markets and other traders to Enron 's failure . Early calculations estimated $ 18 @.@ 7 billion . One adviser stated , " We don 't really know who is out there exposed to Enron 's credit . I 'm telling my clients to prepare for the worst . "
Enron was estimated to have about $ 23 billion in liabilities from both debt outstanding and guaranteed loans . Citigroup and JP Morgan Chase in particular appeared to have significant amounts to lose with Enron 's bankruptcy . Additionally , many of Enron 's major assets were pledged to lenders in order to secure loans , causing doubt about what , if anything , unsecured creditors and eventually stockholders might receive in bankruptcy proceedings .
Enron 's European operations filed for bankruptcy on November 30 , 2001 , and it sought Chapter 11 protection two days later on December 2 . It was the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history ( before being surpassed by WorldCom 's bankruptcy the next year ) , and resulted in 4 @,@ 000 lost jobs . The day that Enron filed for bankruptcy , the employees were told to pack their belongings and were given 30 minutes to vacate the building . Nearly 62 % of 15 @,@ 000 employees ' savings plans relied on Enron stock that was purchased at $ 83 in early 2001 and was now practically worthless .
On January 17 , 2002 , Enron dismissed Arthur Andersen as its auditor , citing its accounting advice and the destruction of documents . Andersen countered that it had already ended its relationship with the company when Enron became bankrupt .
= = Trials = =
= = = Enron = = =
Fastow and his wife , Lea , both pleaded guilty to charges against them . Fastow was initially charged with 98 counts of fraud , money laundering , insider trading , and conspiracy , among other crimes . Fastow pleaded guilty to two charges of conspiracy and was sentenced to ten years with no parole in a plea bargain to testify against Lay , Skilling , and Causey . Lea was indicted on six felony counts , but prosecutors later dismissed them in favor of a single misdemeanor tax charge . Lea was sentenced to one year for helping her husband hide income from the government .
Lay and Skilling went on trial for their part in the Enron scandal in January 2006 . The 53 @-@ count , 65 @-@ page indictment covers a broad range of financial crimes , including bank fraud , making false statements to banks and auditors , securities fraud , wire fraud , money laundering , conspiracy , and insider trading . United States District Judge Sim Lake had previously denied motions by the defendants to have separate trials and to relocate the case out of Houston , where the defendants argued the negative publicity concerning Enron 's demise would make it impossible to get a fair trial . On May 25 , 2006 , the jury in the Lay and Skilling trial returned its verdicts . Skilling was convicted of 19 of 28 counts of securities fraud and wire fraud and acquitted on the remaining nine , including charges of insider trading . He was sentenced to 24 years and 4 months in prison . In 2013 the United States Department of Justice reached a deal with Skilling , which resulted in ten years being cut from his sentence .
Lay pleaded not guilty to the eleven criminal charges , and claimed that he was misled by those around him . He attributed the main cause for the company 's demise to Fastow . Lay was convicted of all six counts of securities and wire fraud for which he had been tried , and he was subject to a maximum total sentence of 45 years in prison . However , before sentencing was scheduled , Lay died on July 5 , 2006 . At the time of his death , the SEC had been seeking more than $ 90 million from Lay in addition to civil fines . The case of Lay 's wife , Linda , is a difficult one . She sold roughly 500 @,@ 000 shares of Enron ten minutes to thirty minutes before the information that Enron was collapsing went public on November 28 , 2001 . Linda was never charged with any of the events related to Enron .
Although Michael Kopper worked at Enron for more than seven years , Lay did not know of Kopper even after the company 's bankruptcy . Kopper was able to keep his name anonymous in the entire affair . Kopper was the first Enron executive to plead guilty . Chief Accounting Officer Rick Causey was indicted with six felony charges for disguising Enron 's financial condition during his tenure . After pleading not guilty , he later switched to guilty and was sentenced to seven years in prison .
All told , sixteen people pleaded guilty for crimes committed at the company , and five others , including four former Merrill Lynch employees , were found guilty . Eight former Enron executives testified — the main witness being Fastow — against Lay and Skilling , his former bosses . Another was Kenneth Rice , the former chief of Enron Corp. ' s high @-@ speed Internet unit , who cooperated and whose testimony helped convict Skilling and Lay . In June 2007 , he received a 27 @-@ month sentence .
Michael W. Krautz , a former Enron accountant , was among the accused who was acquitted of charges related to the scandal . Represented by Barry Pollack , Krautz was acquitted of federal criminal fraud charges after a month @-@ long jury trial .
= = = Arthur Andersen = = =
Arthur Andersen was charged with and found guilty of obstruction of justice for shredding the thousands of documents and deleting e @-@ mails and company files that tied the firm to its audit of Enron . Although only a small number of Arthur Andersen 's employees were involved with the scandal , the firm was effectively put out of business ; the SEC is not allowed to accept audits from convicted felons . The company surrendered its CPA license on August 31 , 2002 , and 85 @,@ 000 employees lost their jobs . The conviction was later overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court due to the jury not being properly instructed on the charge against Andersen . The Supreme Court ruling theoretically left Andersen free to resume operations . However , the damage to the Andersen name has been so great that it has not returned as a viable business even on a limited scale .
= = = NatWest Three = = =
Giles Darby , David Bermingham , and Gary Mulgrew worked for Greenwich NatWest . The three British men had worked with Fastow on a special purpose entity he had started called Swap Sub . When Fastow was being investigated by the SEC , the three men met with the British Financial Services Authority ( FSA ) in November 2001 to discuss their interactions with Fastow . In June 2002 , the U.S. issued warrants for their arrest on seven counts of wire fraud , and they were then extradited . On July 12 , a potential Enron witness scheduled to be extradited to the U.S. , Neil Coulbeck , was found dead in a park in north @-@ east London . Coulbeck 's death was eventually ruled to have been a suicide . The U.S. case alleged that Coulbeck and others conspired with Fastow . In a plea bargain in November 2007 , the trio plead guilty to one count of wire fraud while the other six counts were dismissed . Darby , Bermingham , and Mulgrew were each sentenced to 37 months in prison . In August 2010 , Bermingham and Mulgrew retracted their confessions .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Employees and shareholders = = =
Enron 's shareholders lost $ 74 billion in the four years before the company 's bankruptcy ( $ 40 to $ 45 billion was attributed to fraud ) . As Enron had nearly $ 67 billion that it owed creditors , employees and shareholders received limited , if any , assistance aside from severance from Enron . To pay its creditors , Enron held auctions to sell assets including art , photographs , logo signs , and its pipelines .
In May 2004 , more than 20 @,@ 000 of Enron 's former employees won a suit of $ 85 million for compensation of $ 2 billion that was lost from their pensions . From the settlement , the employees each received about $ 3 @,@ 100 . The next year , investors received another settlement from several banks of $ 4 @.@ 2 billion . In September 2008 , a $ 7 @.@ 2 @-@ billion settlement from a $ 40 @-@ billion lawsuit , was reached on behalf of the shareholders . The settlement was distributed among the main plaintiff , University of California ( UC ) , and 1 @.@ 5 million individuals and groups . UC 's law firm Coughlin Stoia Geller Rudman and Robbins , received $ 688 million in fees , the highest in a U.S. securities fraud case . At the distribution , UC announced in a press release " We are extremely pleased to be returning these funds to the members of the class . Getting here has required a long , challenging effort , but the results for Enron investors are unprecedented . "
= = = Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act = = =
Between December 2001 and April 2002 , the Senate Committee on Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs and the House Committee on Financial Services held multiple hearings about the Enron scandal and related accounting and investor protection issues . These hearings and the corporate scandals that followed Enron led to the passage of the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act on July 30 , 2002 . The Act is nearly " a mirror image of Enron : the company 's perceived corporate governance failings are matched virtually point for point in the principal provisions of the Act . "
The main provisions of the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act included the establishment of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board to develop standards for the preparation of audit reports ; the restriction of public accounting companies from providing any non @-@ auditing services when auditing ; provisions for the independence of audit committee members , executives being required to sign off on financial reports , and relinquishment of certain executives ' bonuses in case of financial restatements ; and expanded financial disclosure of companies ' relationships with unconsolidated entities .
On February 13 , 2002 , due to the instances of corporate malfeasances and accounting violations , the SEC recommended changes of the stock exchanges ' regulations . In June 2002 , the New York Stock Exchange announced a new governance proposal , which was approved by the SEC in November 2003 . The main provisions of the final NYSE proposal include :
All companies must have a majority of independent directors .
Independent directors must comply with an elaborate definition of independent directors .
The compensation committee , nominating committee , and audit committee shall consist of independent directors .
All audit committee members should be financially literate . In addition , at least one member of the audit committee is required to have accounting or related financial management expertise .
In addition to its regular sessions , the board should hold additional sessions without management .
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= Furniture & Meat =
" Furniture & Meat " is the eighth episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written by Cole Sanchez and Andy Ristaino from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis and Adam Muto .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adopted brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , BMO ( voiced by Niki Yang ) — concerned that Finn and Jake 's hoard of gold is threatening the structural integrity of their treehouse — talks Finn into spending the money in Wildberry Kingdom .
The episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 9 million viewers , and ranked as the 52nd most @-@ watched cable show on the day of its airing . Many reviews complimented the humor and tone of the episode , and Jason Krell of io9 Animation appreciated the return of the Ancient Psychic Tandem War Elephant .
= = Plot = =
Outside their tree house , Finn and Jake snooze , while BMO ( Niki Yang ) and N.E.P.T.R. ( Andy Milonakis ) play out a spoof of Robin Hood and the Sheriff of Nottingham . The two break open Finn and Jake 's treasure room , pouring their massive stash of gold out into the yard , as well as the Ancient Psychic Tandem War Elephant ( Steve Agee ) . BMO talks Finn into spending the money at an expensive resort at Wildberry Kingdom . When they arrive in the town square , Jake unloads their treasure into the city 's fountain . A guard scolds them for this , but they bribe him with a few shillings and a crown , freeing them from the law . Chaos follows shortly after Jake uses wealth to control the residents . When they disrespect her authority , Wildberry Princess ( Maria Bamford ) orders Finn and Jake to be arrested and for their money to be seized and melted down . Her punishment is for them to be covered in the molten gold , but BMO and N.E.P.T.R. arrive just in time and save the two .
= = Production = =
" Furniture & Meat " was written and storyboarded by Cole Sanchez and Andy Ristaino . It was adapted from a story by Kent Osborne , Jack Pendarvis , Adam Muto , and series creator Pendleton Ward . Like most episodes of the season , the episode was produced in approximately nine months . Muto , Osborne and Pendarvis crafted a two @-@ page outline , which was then sent to Sanchez and Ristaino for storyboarding in the course of two weeks ( Sanchez and Ristaino are one out of four main storyboarding teams for the series ) . The final storyboard was drafted on December 17 , 2013 . Stamped with the production code " 1025 @-@ 171 " , the storyboard was then sent back to Osborne , for any final feedback , and to the network , for any final notes . The network approved it three weeks later .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Furniture & Meat " first aired in the United States on June 19 , 2014 , on Cartoon Network . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 9 million viewers , receiving a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 4 for adults in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . It was 52nd most @-@ watched television episode on the date of its airing , according to TV by the Numbers .
For io9 Animation , Jason Krell called it " pretty solid " , albeit lacking in relation to the season 's story arc . In his " additional musings " section , he hoped that the war elephant will make a " more meaningful " return , while questioning why nobody in the episode commented on the return of Finn 's arm from " Breezy " . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club gave it a B + , referring it as a throwback to early episodes of the show where specific lessons were taught without dealing with the serial elements of surrounding episodes . He wrote that , while " not quite as substantial as recent installments , it 's still very entertaining " . Ryley Trahan of the online Entertainment Weekly praised the use of Ward 's " best , most subversive humor " , calling it a " great one @-@ shot look " into the main duo 's mischief ; in the print publication , Ray Rahman summarized , " it 's never too early to start saving , kids " .
= = = Home video = = =
The episode first saw physical release on the Finn the Human DVD set on November 25 , 2014 , containing 16 episodes from assorted seasons . In Geek Smash , Colin O 'Boyle considered it one of many " great " episodes included in the release .
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= COBOL =
COBOL ( / ˈkoʊbɒl / , an acronym for common business @-@ oriented language ) is a compiled English @-@ like computer programming language designed for business use . It is imperative , procedural and , since 2002 , object @-@ oriented . COBOL is primarily used in business , finance , and administrative systems for companies and governments . COBOL is still widely used in legacy applications deployed on mainframe computers , such as large @-@ scale batch and transaction processing jobs . But due to its declining popularity and the retirement of experienced COBOL programmers , programs are being migrated to new platforms , rewritten in modern languages or replaced with software packages . Most programming in COBOL is now purely to maintain existing applications .
COBOL was designed in 1959 , by CODASYL and was partly based on previous programming language design work by Grace Hopper , commonly referred to as " the ( grand ) mother of COBOL " . It was created as part of a US Department of Defense effort to create a portable programming language for data processing . Intended as a stopgap , the Department of Defense promptly forced computer manufacturers to provide it , resulting in its widespread adoption . It was standardized in 1968 and has since been revised four times . Expansions include support for structured and object @-@ oriented programming . The current standard is ISO / IEC 1989 : 2014 .
COBOL has an English @-@ like syntax , which was designed to be self @-@ documenting and highly readable . However , it is verbose and uses over 300 reserved words . In contrast with modern , succinct syntax like y = x ; , COBOL has a more English @-@ like syntax ( in this case , MOVE x TO y ) . COBOL code is split into four divisions ( identification , environment , data and procedure ) containing a rigid hierarchy of sections , paragraphs and sentences . Lacking a large standard library , the standard specifies 43 statements , 87 functions and just one class .
Academic computer scientists were generally uninterested in business applications when COBOL was created and were not involved in its design ; it was ( effectively ) designed from the ground up as a computer language for businessmen , with an emphasis on inputs and outputs , whose only data types were numbers and strings of text . COBOL has been criticized throughout its life , however , for its verbosity , design process and poor support for structured programming , which resulted in monolithic and incomprehensible programs .
= = History and specification = =
= = = Background = = =
In the late 1950s , computer users and manufacturers were becoming concerned about the rising cost of programming . A 1959 survey had found that in any data processing installation , the programming cost US $ 800 @,@ 000 on average and that translating programs to run on new hardware would cost $ 600 @,@ 000 . At a time when new programming languages were proliferating at an ever increasing rate , the same survey suggested that if a common business @-@ oriented language were used , conversion would be far cheaper and faster .
In April 1959 , representatives from academia , computer users and manufacturers met at the University of Pennsylvania to organize a formal meeting on common business languages . Representatives among others , included Grace Hopper , inventor of the English @-@ like data processing language FLOW @-@ MATIC , Jean Sammet and Saul Gorn .
The group asked the Department of Defense ( DoD ) to sponsor an effort to create a common business language . The delegation impressed Charles A. Phillips , director of the Data System Research Staff at the DoD , who thought that they " thoroughly understood " the DoD 's problems . The DoD operated 225 computers , had a further 175 on order and had spent over $ 200 million on implementing programs to run on them . Portable programs would save time , reduce costs and ease modernization .
Phillips agreed to sponsor the meeting and tasked the delegation with drafting the agenda .
= = = COBOL 60 = = =
On May 28 and 29 of 1959 ( exactly one year after the Zürich ALGOL 58 meeting ) , a meeting was held at the Pentagon to discuss the creation of a common programming language for business . It was attended by 41 people and was chaired by Phillips . The Department of Defense was concerned about whether it could run the same data processing programs on different computers . FORTRAN , the only mainstream language at the time , lacked the features needed to write such programs .
Representatives enthusiastically described a language that could work in a wide variety of environments , from banking and insurance to utilities and inventory control . They agreed unanimously that more people should be able to program and that the new language should not be restricted by the limitations of contemporary technology . A majority agreed that the language should make maximal use of English , be capable of change , be machine @-@ independent and be easy to use , even at the expense of power .
The meeting resulted in the creation of a steering committee and short- , intermediate- and long @-@ range committees . The short @-@ range committee was given to September ( three months ) to produce specifications for an interim language , which would then be improved upon by the other committees . Their official mission , however , was to identify the strengths and weaknesses of existing programming languages and did not explicitly direct them to create a new language . The deadline was met with disbelief by the short @-@ range committee . One member , Betty Holberton , described the three @-@ month deadline as " gross optimism " and doubted that the language really would be a stopgap .
The steering committee met on June 4 and agreed to name the entire activity as the Committee on Data Systems Languages , or CODASYL , and to form an executive committee .
The short @-@ range committee was made up of members representing six computer manufacturers and three government agencies . The six computer manufacturers were Burroughs Corporation , IBM , Minneapolis @-@ Honeywell ( Honeywell Labs ) , RCA , Sperry Rand , and Sylvania Electric Products . The three government agencies were the US Air Force , the Navy 's David Taylor Model Basin , and the National Bureau of Standards ( now the National Institute of Standards and Technology ) . The committee was chaired by Joseph Wegstein of the US National Bureau of Standards . Work began by investigating data description , statements , existing applications and user experiences .
The committee mainly examined the FLOW @-@ MATIC , AIMACO and COMTRAN programming languages . The FLOW @-@ MATIC language was particularly influential because it had been implemented and because AIMACO was a derivative of it with only minor changes . FLOW @-@ MATIC 's inventor , Grace Hopper , also served as a technical adviser to the committee . FLOW @-@ MATIC 's major contributions to COBOL were long variable names , English words for commands and the separation of data descriptions and instructions .
IBM 's COMTRAN language , invented by Bob Bemer , was regarded as a competitor to FLOW @-@ MATIC by a short @-@ range committee made up of colleagues of Grace Hopper . Some of its features were not incorporated into COBOL so that it would not look like IBM had dominated the design process , and Jean Sammet said in 1981 that there had been a " strong anti @-@ IBM bias " from some committee members ( herself included ) . In one case , after Roy Goldfinger , author of the COMTRAN manual and intermediate @-@ range committee member , attended a subcommittee meeting to support his language and encourage the use of algebraic expressions , Grace Hopper sent a memo to the short @-@ range committee reiterating Sperry Rand 's efforts to create a language based on English . In 1980 , Grace Hopper commented that " COBOL 60 is 95 % FLOW @-@ MATIC " and that COMTRAN had had an " extremely small " influence . Furthermore , she said that she would claim that work was influenced by both FLOW @-@ MATIC and COMTRAN only to " keep other people happy [ so they ] wouldn 't try to knock us out " . Features from COMTRAN incorporated into COBOL included formulas , the PICTURE clause , an improved IF statement , which obviated the need for GO TOs , and a more robust file management system .
The usefulness of the committee 's work was subject of great debate . While some members thought the language had too many compromises and was the result of design by committee , others felt it was better than the three languages examined . Some felt the language was too complex ; others , too simple . Controversial features included those some considered useless or too advanced for data processing users . Such features included boolean expressions , formulas and table subscripts ( indices ) . Another point of controversy was whether to make keywords context @-@ sensitive and the effect that would have on readability . Although context @-@ sensitive keywords were rejected , the approach was later used in PL / I and partially in COBOL from 2002 . Little consideration was given to interactivity , interaction with operating systems ( few existed at that time ) and functions ( thought of as purely mathematical and of no use in data processing ) .
The specifications were presented to the Executive Committee on September 4 . They fell short of expectations : Joseph Wegstein noted that " it contains rough spots and requires some additions " , and Bob Bemer later described them as a " hodgepodge " . The subcommittee was given until December to improve it .
At a mid @-@ September meeting , the committee discussed the new language 's name . Suggestions included " BUSY " ( Business System ) , " INFOSYL " ( Information System Language ) and " COCOSYL " ( Common Computer Systems Language ) . The name " COBOL " was suggested by Bob Bemer .
In October , the intermediate @-@ range committee received copies of the FACT language specification created by Roy Nutt . Its features impressed the committee so much that they passed a resolution to base COBOL on it . This was a blow to the short @-@ range committee , who had made good progress on the specification . Despite being technically superior , FACT had not been created with portability in mind or through manufacturer and user consensus . It also lacked a demonstrable implementation , allowing supporters of a FLOW @-@ MATIC @-@ based COBOL to overturn the resolution . RCA representative Howard Bromberg also blocked FACT , so that RCA 's work on a COBOL implementation would not go to waste .
It soon became apparent that the committee was too large for any further progress to be made quickly . A frustrated Howard Bromberg bought a $ 15 tombstone with " COBOL " engraved on it and sent it to Charles Phillips to demonstrate his displeasure . A sub @-@ committee was formed to analyze existing languages and was made up of six individuals :
William Selden and Gertrude Tierney of IBM ,
Howard Bromberg and Howard Discount of RCA ,
Vernon Reeves and Jean E. Sammet of Sylvania Electric Products .
The sub @-@ committee did most of the work creating the specification , leaving the short @-@ range committee to review and modify their work before producing the finished specification .
The specifications were approved by the Executive Committee on January 3 , 1960 , and sent to the government printing office , which printed these as COBOL 60 . The language 's stated objectives were to allow efficient , portable programs to be easily written , to allow users to move to new systems with minimal effort and cost , and to be suitable for inexperienced programmers . The CODASYL Executive Committee later created the COBOL Maintenance Committee to answer questions from users and vendors and to improve and expand the specifications .
During 1960 , the list of manufacturers planning to build COBOL compilers grew . By September , five more manufacturers had joined CODASYL ( Bendix , Control Data Corporation , General Electric ( GE ) , National Cash Register and Philco ) , and all represented manufacturers had announced COBOL compilers . GE and IBM planned to integrate COBOL into their own languages , GECOM and COMTRAN , respectively . In contrast , International Computers and Tabulators planned to replace their language , CODEL , with COBOL .
Meanwhile , RCA and Sperry Rand worked on creating COBOL compilers . The first COBOL program ran on 17 August on an RCA 501 . On December 6 and 7 , the same COBOL program ( albeit with minor changes ) ran on an RCA computer and a Remington @-@ Rand Univac computer , demonstrating that compatibility could be achieved .
The relative influences of which languages were used continues to this day in the recommended advisory printed in all COBOL reference manuals :
COBOL is an industry language and is not the property of any company or group of companies , or of any organization or group of organizations .
No warranty , expressed or implied , is made by any contributor or by the CODASYL COBOL Committee as to the accuracy and functioning of the programming system and language . Moreover , no responsibility is assumed by any contributor , or by the committee , in connection therewith . The authors and copyright holders of the copyrighted material used herein are as follows :
FLOW @-@ MATIC ( trademark of Unisys Corporation ) , Programming for the UNIVAC ( R ) I and II , Data Automation Systems , copyrighted 1958 , 1959 , by Unisys Corporation ; IBM Commercial Translator Form No . F28 @-@ 8013 , copyrighted 1959 by IBM ; FACT , DSI 27A5260 @-@ 2760 , copyrighted 1960 by Minneapolis @-@ Honeywell .
They have specifically authorized the use of this material , in whole or in part , in the COBOL specifications . Such authorization extends to the reproduction and use of COBOL specifications in programming manuals or similar publications .
= = = COBOL @-@ 61 to COBOL @-@ 65 = = =
Many logical flaws were found in COBOL 60 , leading GE 's Charles Katz to warn that it could not be interpreted unambiguously . A reluctant short @-@ term committee enacted a total cleanup and , by March 1963 , it was reported that COBOL 's syntax was as definable as ALGOL 's , although semantic ambiguities remained .
Early COBOL compilers were primitive and slow . A 1962 US Navy evaluation found compilation speeds of 3 – 11 statements per minute . By mid @-@ 1964 , they had increased to 11 – 1000 statements per minute . It was observed that increasing memory would drastically increase speed and that compilation costs varied wildly : costs per statement were between $ 0 @.@ 23 and $ 18 @.@ 91 .
In late 1962 , IBM announced that COBOL would be their primary development language and that development of COMTRAN would cease .
The COBOL specification was revised three times in the five years after its publication . COBOL @-@ 60 was replaced in 1961 by COBOL @-@ 61 . This was then replaced by the COBOL @-@ 61 Extended specifications in 1963 , which introduced the sort and report writer facilities . The added facilities corrected flaws identified by Honeywell in late 1959 in a letter to the short @-@ range committee . COBOL Edition 1965 brought further clarifications to the specifications and introduced facilities for handling mass storage files and tables .
= = = COBOL @-@ 68 = = =
Efforts began to standardize COBOL to overcome incompatibilities between versions . In late 1962 , both ISO and the United States of America Standards Institute ( now ANSI ) formed groups to create standards . ANSI produced USA Standard COBOL X3.23 in August 1968 , which became the cornerstone for later versions . This version was known as American National Standard ( ANS ) COBOL and was adopted by ISO in 1972 .
= = = COBOL @-@ 74 = = =
By 1970 , COBOL had become the most widely used programming language in the world .
Independently of the ANSI committee , the CODASYL Programming Language Committee was working on improving the language . They described new versions in 1968 , 1969 , 1970 and 1973 , including changes such as new inter @-@ program communication , debugging and file merging facilities as well as improved string @-@ handling and library inclusion features . Although CODASYL was independent of the ANSI committee , the CODASYL Journal of Development was used by ANSI to identify features that were popular enough to warrant implementing . The Programming Language Committee also liaised with ECMA and the Japanese COBOL Standard committee .
The Programming Language Committee was not well @-@ known , however . The vice @-@ president , William Rinehuls , complained that two @-@ thirds of the COBOL community did not know of the committee 's existence . It was also poor , lacking the funds to make public documents , such as minutes of meetings and change proposals , freely available .
In 1974 , ANSI published a revised version of ( ANS ) COBOL , containing new features such as file organizations , the DELETE statement and the segmentation module . Deleted features included the NOTE statement , the EXAMINE statement ( which was replaced by INSPECT ) and the implementer @-@ defined random access module ( which was superseded by the new sequential and relative I / O modules ) . These made up 44 changes , which rendered existing statements incompatible with the new standard . The report writer was slated to be removed from COBOL , but was reinstated before the standard was published . ISO later adopted the updated standard in 1978 .
= = = COBOL @-@ 85 = = =
In June 1978 , work began on revising COBOL @-@ 74 . The proposed standard ( commonly called COBOL @-@ 80 ) differed significantly from the previous one , causing concerns about incompatibility and conversion costs . In January 1981 , Joseph T. Brophy , Senior Vice @-@ President of Travelers Insurance , threatened to sue the standard committee because it was not upwards compatible with COBOL @-@ 74 . Mr. Brophy described previous conversions of their 40 @-@ million @-@ line code base as " non @-@ productive " and a " complete waste of our programmer resources " . Later that year , the Data Processing Management Association ( DPMA ) said it was " strongly opposed " to the new standard , citing " prohibitive " conversion costs and enhancements that were " forced on the user " .
During the first public review period , the committee received 2 @,@ 200 responses , of which 1 @,@ 700 were negative form letters . Other responses were detailed analyses of the effect COBOL @-@ 80 would have on their systems ; conversion costs were predicted to be at least 50 cents per line of code . Fewer than a dozen of the responses were in favor of the proposed standard .
In 1983 , the DPMA withdrew its opposition to the standard , citing the responsiveness of the committee to public concerns . In the same year , a National Bureau of Standards study concluded that the proposed standard would present few problems . A year later , a COBOL @-@ 80 compiler was released to DEC VAX users , who noted that conversion of COBOL @-@ 74 programs posed few problems . The new EVALUATE statement and inline PERFORM were particularly well received and improved productivity , thanks to simplified control flow and debugging .
The second public review drew another 1 @,@ 000 ( mainly negative ) responses , while the last drew just 25 , by which time many concerns had been addressed .
In late 1985 , ANSI published the revised standard . Sixty features were changed or deprecated and many were added , such as :
Scope terminators ( END @-@ IF , END @-@ PERFORM , END @-@ READ , etc . )
Nested subprograms
CONTINUE , a no @-@ operation statement
EVALUATE , a switch statement
INITIALIZE , a statement that can set groups of data to their default values
Inline PERFORM loop bodies – previously , loop bodies had to be specified in a separate procedure
Reference modification , which allows access to substrings
I / O status codes .
The standard was adopted by ISO the same year . Two amendments followed in 1989 and 1993 , the first introducing intrinsic functions and the other providing corrections . ISO adopted the amendments in 1991 and 1994 respectively , before subsequently taking primary ownership and development of the standard .
= = = COBOL 2002 and object @-@ oriented COBOL = = =
In 1997 , Gartner Group estimated that there were a total of 200 billion lines of COBOL in existence , which ran 80 % of all business programs .
In the early 1990s , work began on adding object @-@ orientation in the next full revision of COBOL . Object @-@ oriented features were taken from C + + and Smalltalk . The initial estimate was to have this revision completed by 1997 , and an ISO Committee Draft ( CD ) was available by 1997 . Some vendors ( including Micro Focus , Fujitsu , and IBM ) introduced object @-@ oriented syntax based on drafts of the full revision . The final approved ISO standard was approved and published in late 2002 .
Fujitsu / GTSoftware , Micro Focus and RainCode introduced object @-@ oriented COBOL compilers targeting the .NET Framework .
There were many other new features , many of which had been in the CODASYL COBOL Journal of Development since 1978 and had missed the opportunity to be included in COBOL @-@ 85 . These other features included :
Free @-@ form code
User @-@ defined functions
Recursion
Locale @-@ based processing
Support for extended character sets such as Unicode
Floating @-@ point and binary data types ( until then , binary items were truncated based on their declaration 's base @-@ 10 specification )
Portable arithmetic results
Bit and boolean data types
Pointers and syntax for getting and freeing storage
The SCREEN SECTION for text @-@ based user interfaces
The VALIDATE facility
Improved interoperability with other programming languages and framework environments such as .NET and Java .
Three corrigenda were published for the standard : two in 2006 and one in 2009 .
= = = COBOL 2014 = = =
Between 2003 and 2009 , three technical reports were produced describing object finalization , XML processing and collection classes for COBOL .
COBOL 2002 suffered from poor support : no compilers completely supported the standard . Micro Focus found that it was due to a lack of user demand for the new features and due to the abolition of the NIST test suite , which had been used to test compiler conformance . The standardization process was also found to be slow and under @-@ resourced .
COBOL 2014 includes the following changes :
Portable arithmetic results have been replaced by IEEE 754 data types
Major features have been made optional , such as the VALIDATE facility , the report writer and the screen @-@ handling facility .
Method overloading
Dynamic capacity tables ( a feature dropped from the draft of COBOL 2002 )
= = = Legacy = = =
COBOL programs are used globally in governments and businesses and are running on diverse operating systems such as z / OS , VME , Unix , OpenVMS and Windows . In 1997 , the Gartner Group reported that 80 % of the world 's business ran on COBOL with over 200 billion lines of code and 5 billion lines more being written annually .
Near the end of the 20th century , the year 2000 problem ( Y2K ) was the focus of significant COBOL programming effort , sometimes by the same programmers who had designed the systems decades before . The particular level of effort required to correct COBOL code has been attributed to the large amount of business @-@ oriented COBOL , as business applications use dates heavily , and to fixed @-@ length data fields . After the clean @-@ up effort put into these programs for Y2K , a 2003 survey found that many remained in use . The authors said that the survey data suggest " a gradual decline in the importance of Cobol in application development over the [ following ] 10 years unless ... integration with other languages and technologies can be adopted " .
In 2006 and 2012 , Computerworld surveys found that over 60 % of organizations used COBOL ( more than C + + and Visual Basic .NET ) and that for half of those , COBOL was used for the majority of their internal software . 36 % of managers said they planned to migrate from COBOL , and 25 % said they would like to if it was cheaper . Instead , some businesses have migrated their systems from expensive mainframes to cheaper , more modern systems , while maintaining their COBOL programs .
= = Features = =
= = = Syntax = = =
COBOL has an English @-@ like syntax , which is used to describe nearly everything in a program . For example , a condition can be expressed as x IS GREATER THAN y or more concisely as x GREATER y or x > y . More complex conditions can be " abbreviated " by removing repeated conditions and variables . For example , a > b AND a > c OR a |
= d can be shortened to a > b AND c OR =
d . As a consequence of this English @-@ like syntax , COBOL has over 300 keywords . Some of the keywords are simple alternative or pluralized spellings of the same word , which provides for more English @-@ like statements and clauses ; e.g. , the IN and OF keywords can be used interchangeably , as can IS and ARE , and VALUE and VALUES .
Each COBOL program is made up of four basic lexical items : words , literals , picture character @-@ strings ( see § PICTURE clause ) and separators . Words include reserved words and user @-@ defined identifiers . They are up to 31 characters long and may include letters , digits , hyphens and underscores . Literals include numerals ( e.g. 12 ) and strings ( e.g. ' Hello ! ' ) . Separators include the space character and commas and semi @-@ colons followed by a space .
A COBOL program is split into four divisions : the identification division , the environment division , the data division and the procedure division . The identification division specifies the name and type of the source element and is where classes and interfaces are specified . The environment division specifies any program features that depend on the system running it , such as files and character sets . The data division is used to declare variables and parameters . The procedure division contains the program 's statements . Each division is sub @-@ divided into sections , which are made up of paragraphs .
= = = Code format = = =
COBOL can be written in two formats : fixed ( the default ) or free . In fixed @-@ format , code must be aligned to fit in certain areas . Until COBOL 2002 , these were :
In COBOL 2002 , Areas A and B were merged and extended to column 255 , and the program name area was removed .
COBOL 2002 also introduced free @-@ format code . Free @-@ format code can be placed in any column of the file , as in newer programming languages . Comments are specified using * > , which can be placed anywhere and can also be used in fixed @-@ format source code . Continuation lines are not present , and the > > PAGE directive replaces the / indicator .
= = = Identification division = = =
The identification division identifies the following code entity and contains the definition of a class or interface .
= = = = Object @-@ oriented programming = = = =
Classes and interfaces have been in COBOL since 2002 . Classes have factory objects , containing class methods and variables , and instance objects , containing instance methods and variables . Inheritance and interfaces provide polymorphism . Support for generic programming is provided through parameterized classes , which can be instantiated to use any class or interface . Objects are stored as references which may be restricted to a certain type . There are two ways of calling a method : the INVOKE statement , which acts similarly to CALL , or through inline method invocation , which is analogous to using functions .
COBOL does not provide a way to hide methods . Class data can be hidden , however , by declaring it without a PROPERTY clause , which leaves the user with no way to access it . Method overloading was added in COBOL 2014 .
= = = Environment division = = =
The environment division contains the configuration section and the input @-@ output section . The configuration section is used to specify variable features such as currency signs , locales and character sets . The input @-@ output section contains file @-@ related information .
= = = = Files = = = =
COBOL supports three file formats , or organizations : sequential , indexed and relative . In sequential files , records are contiguous and must be traversed sequentially , similarly to a linked list . Indexed files have one or more indexes which allow records to be randomly accessed and which can be sorted on them . Each record must have a unique key , but other , alternate , record keys need not be unique . Implementations of indexed files vary between vendors , although common implementations , such as C ‑ ISAM and VSAM , are based on IBM 's ISAM . Relative files , like indexed files , have a unique record key , but they do not have alternate keys . A relative record 's key is its ordinal position ; for example , the 10th record has a key of 10 . This means that creating a record with a key of 5 may require the creation of ( empty ) preceding records . Relative files also allow for both sequential and random access .
A common non @-@ standard extension is the line sequential organization , used to process text files . Records in a file are terminated by a newline and may be of varying length .
= = = Data division = = =
The data division is split into six sections which declare different items : the file section , for file records ; the working @-@ storage section , for static variables ; the local @-@ storage section , for automatic variables ; the linkage section , for parameters and the return value ; the report section and the screen section , for text @-@ based user interfaces .
= = = = Aggregated data = = = =
Data items in COBOL are declared hierarchically through the use of level @-@ numbers which indicate if a data item is part of another . An item with a higher level @-@ number is subordinate to an item with a lower one . Top @-@ level data items , with a level @-@ number of 1 , are called records . Items that have subordinate aggregate data are called group items ; those that do not are called elementary items . Level @-@ numbers used to describe standard data items are between 1 and 49 .
In the above example , elementary item num and group item the @-@ date are subordinate to the record some @-@ record , while elementary items the @-@ year , the @-@ month , and the @-@ day are part of the group item the @-@ date .
Subordinate items can be disambiguated with the IN ( or OF ) keyword . For example , consider the example code above along with the following example :
The names the @-@ year , the @-@ month , and the @-@ day are ambiguous by themselves , since more than one data item is defined with those names . To specify a particular data item , for instance one of the items contained within the sale @-@ date group , the programmer would use the @-@ year IN sale @-@ date ( or the equivalent the @-@ year OF sale @-@ date ) . ( This syntax is similar to the " dot notation " supported by most contemporary languages . )
= = = = Other data levels = = = =
A level @-@ number of 66 is used to declare a re @-@ grouping of previously defined items , irrespective of how those items are structured . This data level , also referred to by the associated RENAMES clause , is rarely used and , circa 1988 , was usually found in old programs . Its ability to ignore the hierarchical and logical structure data meant its use was not recommended and many installations forbade its use .
A 77 level @-@ number indicates the item is stand @-@ alone , and in such situations is equivalent to the level @-@ number 01 . For example , the following code declares two 77 @-@ level data items , property @-@ name and sales @-@ region , which are non @-@ group data items that are independent of ( not subordinate to ) any other data items :
An 88 level @-@ number declares a condition name ( a so @-@ called 88 @-@ level ) which is true when its parent data item contains one of the values specified in it VALUE clause . For example , the following code defines two 88 @-@ level condition @-@ name items that are true or false depending on the current character data value of the wage @-@ type data item . When the data item contains a value of ' H ' , the condition @-@ name wage @-@ is @-@ hourly is true , whereas when it contains a value of ' S ' or ' Y ' , the condition @-@ name wage @-@ is @-@ yearly is true . If the data item contains some other value , both of the condition @-@ names are false .
= = = = Data types = = = =
Standard COBOL provides the following data types :
Type safety is variable in COBOL . Numeric data is converted between different representations and sizes silently and alphanumeric data can be placed in any data item that can be stored as a string , including numeric and group data . In contrast , object references and pointers may only be assigned from items of the same type and their values may be restricted to a certain type .
= = = = = PICTURE clause = = = = =
A PICTURE ( or PIC ) clause is a string of characters , each of which represents a portion of the data item and what it may contain . Some picture characters specify the type of the item and how many characters or digits it occupies in memory . For example , a 9 indicates a decimal digit , and an S indicates that the item is signed . Other picture characters ( called insertion and editing characters ) specify how an item should be formatted . For example , a series of + characters define character positions as well as how a leading sign character is to be positioned within the final character data ; the rightmost non @-@ numeric character will contain the item 's sign , while other character positions corresponding to a + to the left of this position will contain a space . Repeated characters can be specified more concisely by specifying a number in parentheses after a picture character ; for example , 9 ( 7 ) is equivalent to 9999999 . Picture specifications containing only digit ( 9 ) and sign ( S ) characters define purely numeric data items , while picture specifications containing alphabetic ( A ) or alphanumeric ( X ) characters define alphanumeric data items . The presence of other formatting characters define edited numeric or edited alphanumeric data items .
= = = = = USAGE clause = = = = =
The USAGE clause declares the format data is stored in . Depending on the data type , it can either complement or be used instead of a PICTURE clause . While it can be used to declare pointers and object references , it is mostly geared towards specifying numeric types . These numeric formats are :
Binary , where a minimum size is either specified by the PICTURE clause or by a USAGE clause such as BINARY @-@ LONG .
USAGE COMPUTATIONAL , where data may be stored in whatever format the implementation provides ; often equivalent to USAGE BINARY
USAGE DISPLAY , the default format , where data is stored as a string
Floating @-@ point , in either an implementation @-@ dependent format or according to IEEE 754 .
USAGE NATIONAL , where data is stored as a string using an extended character set
USAGE PACKED @-@ DECIMAL , where data is stored in the smallest possible decimal format ( typically packed binary @-@ coded decimal )
= = = = Report writer = = = =
The report writer is a declarative facility for creating reports . The programmer need only specify the report layout and the data required to produce it , freeing them from having to write code to handle things like page breaks , data formatting , and headings and footings .
Reports are associated with report files , which are files which may only be written to through report writer statements .
Each report is defined in the report section of the data division . A report is split into report groups which define the report 's headings , footings and details . Reports work around hierarchical control breaks . Control breaks occur when a key variable changes it value ; for example , when creating a report detailing customers ' orders , a control break could occur when the program reaches a different customer 's orders . Here is an example report description for a report which gives a salesperson 's sales and which warns of any invalid records :
The above report description describes the following layout :
Sales Report Page 1
Seller : Howard Bromberg
Sales on 10 / 12 / 2008 were $ 1000 @.@ 00
Sales on 12 / 12 / 2008 were $ 0 @.@ 00
Sales on 13 / 12 / 2008 were $ 31 @.@ 47
INVALID RECORD : Howard Bromberg XXXXYY
Seller : Howard Discount
...
Sales Report Page 12
Sales on 08 / 05 / 2014 were $ 543 @.@ 98
INVALID RECORD : William Selden 12O52014FOOFOO
Sales on 30 / 05 / 2014 were $ 0 @.@ 00
Four statements control the report writer : INITIATE , which prepares the report writer for printing ; GENERATE , which prints a report group ; SUPPRESS , which suppresses the printing of a report group ; and TERMINATE , which terminates report processing . For the above sales report example , the procedure division might look like this :
= = = Procedure division = = =
= = = = Procedures = = = =
The sections and paragraphs in the procedure division ( collectively called procedures ) can be used as labels and as simple subroutines . Unlike in other divisions , paragraphs do not need to be in sections . Execution goes down through the procedures of a program until it is terminated . To use procedures as subroutines , the PERFORM verb is used . This transfers control to the specified range of procedures and returns only upon reaching the end .
Unusual control flow can trigger mines , which cause control in performed procedures to return at unexpected times to unexpected locations . Procedures can be reached in three ways : they can be called with PERFORM , jumped to from a GO TO or through execution " falling through " the bottom of an above paragraph . Combinations of these invoke undefined behavior , creating mines . Specifically , mines occur when execution of a range of procedures would cause control flow to go past the last statement of a range of procedures already being performed .
For example , in the code in the adjacent image , a mine is tripped at the end of update @-@ screen when the screen is invalid . When the screen is invalid , control jumps to the fix @-@ screen section , which , when done , performs update @-@ screen . This recursion triggers undefined behavior as there are now two overlapping ranges of procedures being performed . The mine is then triggered upon reaching the end of update @-@ screen and means control could return to one of two locations :
The first PERFORM statement
The PERFORM statement in fix @-@ screen , where it would then " fall @-@ through " into update @-@ screen and return to the first PERFORM statement upon reaching the end .
= = = = Statements = = = =
COBOL 2014 has 47 statements ( also called verbs ) , which can be grouped into the following broad categories : control flow , I / O , data manipulation and the report writer . The report writer statements are covered in the report writer section .
= = = = = Control flow = = = = =
COBOL 's conditional statements are IF and EVALUATE . EVALUATE is a switch @-@ like statement with the added capability of evaluating multiple values and conditions . This can be used to implement decision tables . For example , the following might be used to control a CNC lathe :
The PERFORM statement is used to define loops which are executed until a condition is true ( not while , unlike other languages ) . It is also used to call procedures or ranges of procedures ( see the procedures section for more details ) . CALL and INVOKE call subprograms and methods , respectively . The name of the subprogram / method is contained in a string which may be a literal or a data item . Parameters can be passed by reference , by content ( where a copy is passed by reference ) or by value ( but only if a prototype is available ) . CANCEL unloads subprograms from memory . GO TO causes the program to jump to a specified procedure .
The GOBACK statement is a return statement and the STOP statement stops the program . The EXIT statement has six different formats : it can be used as a return statement , a break statement , a continue statement , an end marker or to leave a procedure .
Exceptions are raised by a RAISE statement and caught with a handler , or declarative , defined in the DECLARATIVES portion of the procedure division . Declaratives are sections beginning with a USE statement which specify the errors to handle . Exceptions can be names or objects . RESUME is used in a declarative to jump to the statement after the one that raised the exception or to a procedure outside the DECLARATIVES . Unlike other languages , uncaught exceptions may not terminate the program and the program can proceed unaffected .
= = = = = I / O = = = = =
File I / O is handled by the self @-@ describing OPEN , CLOSE , READ , and WRITE statements along with a further three : REWRITE , which updates a record ; START , which selects subsequent records to access by finding a record with a certain key ; and UNLOCK , which releases a lock on the last record accessed .
User interaction is done using ACCEPT and DISPLAY .
= = = = = Data manipulation = = = = =
The following verbs manipulate data :
INITIALIZE , which sets data items to their default values .
MOVE , which assigns values to data items .
SET , which has 15 formats : it can modify indices , assign object references and alter table capacities , among other functions .
ADD , SUBTRACT , MULTIPLY , DIVIDE , and COMPUTE , which handle arithmetic ( with COMPUTE assigning the result of a formula to a variable ) .
ALLOCATE and FREE , which handle dynamic memory .
VALIDATE , which validates and distributes data as specified in an item 's description in the data division .
STRING and UNSTRING , which concatenate and split strings , respectively .
INSPECT , which tallies or replaces instances of specified substrings within a string .
SEARCH , which searches a table for the first entry satisfying a condition .
Files and tables are sorted using SORT and the MERGE verb merges and sorts files . The RELEASE verb provides records to sort and RETURN retrieves sorted records in order .
= = = = Scope termination = = = =
Some statements , such as IF and READ , may themselves contain statements . Such statements may be terminated in two ways : by a period ( implicit termination ) , which terminates all unterminated statements contained , or by a scope terminator , which terminates the nearest matching open statement .
Nested statements terminated with a period are a common source of bugs . For example , examine the following code :
Here , the intent is to display y and z if condition x is true . However , z will be displayed whatever the value of x because the IF statement is terminated by an erroneous period after DISPLAY y .
Another bug is a result of the dangling else problem , when two IF statements can associate with an ELSE .
In the above fragment , the ELSE associates with the IF y statement instead of the IF x statement , causing a bug . Prior to the introduction of explicit scope terminators , preventing it would require ELSE NEXT SENTENCE to be placed after the inner IF .
= = = = Self @-@ modifying code = = = =
The original ( 1959 ) COBOL specification supported the infamous ALTER X TO PROCEED TO Y statement , for which many compilers generated self @-@ modifying code . X and Y are procedure labels , and the single GO TO statement in procedure X executed after such an ALTER statement means GO TO Y instead . Many compilers still support it , but it was deemed obsolete in the COBOL 1985 standard and deleted in 2002 .
= = = Hello , world = = =
A " Hello , world " program in COBOL :
= = = = HELLO , WORLD = = = =
When the – now famous – " Hello , World ! " program example in The C Programming Language was first published in 1978 a similar mainframe COBOL program sample would have been submitted through JCL , very likely using a punch card reader , and 80 column punch cards . The listing below , with an empty DATA DIVISION , was tested using GNU / Linux and the System / 370 Hercules emulator running MVS 3.8J. The JCL , written in July 2015 , is derived from the Hercules tutorials and samples hosted by Jay Moseley . In keeping with COBOL programming of that era , HELLO , WORLD is displayed in all capital letters .
After submitting the JCL , the MVS console displayed :
Line 10 of the console listing above is highlighted for effect , the highlighting is not part of the actual console output .
The associated compiler listing generated over four pages of technical detail and job run information , for the single line of output from the 14 lines of COBOL .
= = Criticism and defense = =
= = = Lack of structure = = =
In the 1970s , programmers began moving away from unstructured spaghetti code to the structured programming paradigm . In his letter to an editor in 1975 entitled " How do we tell truths that might hurt ? " which was critical of several of COBOL 's contemporaries , computer scientist and Turing Award recipient Edsger Dijkstra remarked that " The use of COBOL cripples the mind ; its teaching should , therefore , be regarded as a criminal offense . " In his dissenting response to Dijkstra 's article and the above " offensive statement , " computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins defended structured COBOL : " COBOL programs with convoluted control flow indeed tend to ' cripple the mind ' , " but this was because " There are too many such business application programs written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well ... "
One cause of spaghetti code was the GO TO statement . Attempts to remove GO TOs from COBOL code , however , resulted in convoluted programs and reduced code quality . GO TOs were largely replaced by the PERFORM statement and procedures , which promoted modular programming and gave easy access to powerful looping facilities . However , PERFORM could only be used with procedures so loop bodies were not located where they were used , making programs harder to understand .
COBOL programs were infamous for being monolithic and lacking modularization . COBOL code could only be modularized through procedures , which were found to be inadequate for large systems . It was impossible to restrict access to data , meaning a procedure could access and modify any data item . Furthermore , there was no way to pass parameters to a procedure , an omission Jean Sammet regarded as the committee 's biggest mistake . Another complication stemmed from the ability to PERFORM THRU a specified sequence of procedures . This meant that control could jump to and return from any procedure , creating convoluted control flow and permitting a programmer to break the single @-@ entry single @-@ exit rule .
This situation improved as COBOL adopted more features . COBOL @-@ 74 added subprograms , giving programmers the ability to control the data each part of the program could access . COBOL @-@ 85 then added nested subprograms , allowing programmers to hide subprograms . Further control over data and code came in 2002 when object @-@ oriented programming , user @-@ defined functions and user @-@ defined data types were included .
Nevertheless , much important legacy COBOL software uses unstructured code , which has become unmaintainable . It can be too risky and costly to modify even a simple section of code , since it may be used from unknown places in unknown ways .
= = = Compatibility issues = = =
COBOL was intended to be a highly portable , " common " language . However , by 2001 , around 300 dialects had been created . One source of dialects was the standard itself : the 1974 standard was composed of one mandatory nucleus and eleven funtional modules , each containing two or three levels of support . This permitted 104 @,@ 976 official variants .
COBOL @-@ 85 was not fully compatible with earlier versions , and its development was controversial . Joseph T. Brophy , the CIO of Travelers Insurance , spearheaded an effort to inform COBOL users of the heavy reprogramming costs of implementing the new standard . As a result , the ANSI COBOL Committee received more than 2 @,@ 200 letters from the public , mostly negative , requiring the committee to make changes . On the other hand , conversion to COBOL @-@ 85 was thought to increase productivity in future years , thus justifying the conversion costs .
= = = Verbose syntax = = =
COBOL syntax has often been criticized for its verbosity . Proponents say that this was intended to make the code self @-@ documenting , easing program maintenance . COBOL was also intended to be easy for programmers to learn and use , while still being readable to non @-@ technical staff such as managers . The desire for readability led to the use of English @-@ like syntax and structural elements , such as nouns , verbs , clauses , sentences , sections , and divisions . Yet by 1984 , maintainers of COBOL programs were struggling to deal with " incomprehensible " code and the main changes in COBOL @-@ 85 were there to help ease maintenance .
Jean Sammet , a short @-@ range committee member , noted that " little attempt was made to cater to the professional programmer , in fact people whose main interest is programming tend to be very unhappy with COBOL " which she attributed to COBOL 's verbose syntax .
= = = Isolation from the computer science community = = =
The COBOL community has always been isolated from the computer science community . No academic computer scientists participated in the design of COBOL : all of those on the committee came from commerce or government . Computer scientists at the time were more interested in fields like numerical analysis , physics and system programming than the commercial file @-@ processing problems which COBOL development tackled . Jean Sammet attributed COBOL 's unpopularity to an initial " snob reaction " due to its inelegance , the lack of influential computer scientists participating in the design process and a disdain for business data processing . The COBOL specification used a unique " notation " , or metalanguage , to define its syntax rather than the new Backus – Naur form because few committee members had heard of it . This resulted in " severe " criticism .
Later , COBOL suffered from a shortage of material covering it ; it took until 1963 for introductory books to appear ( with Richard D. Irwin publishing a college textbook on COBOL in 1966 ) . By 1985 , there were twice as many books on Fortran and four times as many on BASIC as on COBOL in the Library of Congress . University professors taught more modern , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art languages and techniques instead of COBOL which was said to have a " trade school " nature . Donald Nelson , chair of the CODASYL COBOL committee , said in 1984 that " academics ... hate COBOL " and that computer science graduates " had ' hate COBOL ' drilled into them " . A 2013 poll by Micro Focus found that 20 % of university academics thought COBOL was outdated or dead and that 55 % believed their students thought COBOL was outdated or dead . The same poll also found that only 25 % of academics had COBOL programming on their curriculum even though 60 % thought they should teach it . In contrast , in 2003 , COBOL featured in 80 % of information systems curricula in the United States , the same proportion as C + + and Java .
= = = Concerns about the design process = = =
Doubts have been raised about the competence of the standards committee . Short @-@ term committee member Howard Bromberg said that there was " little control " over the development process and that it was " plagued by discontinuity of personnel and ... a lack of talent . " Jean Sammet and Jerome Garfunkel also noted that changes introduced in one revision of the standard would be reverted in the next , due as much to changes in who was in the standard committee as to objective evidence .
COBOL standards have repeatedly suffered from delays : COBOL @-@ 85 arrived five years later than hoped , COBOL 2002 was five years late , and COBOL 2014 was six years late . To combat delays , the standard committee allowed the creation of optional addenda which would add features more quickly than by waiting for the next standard revision . However , some committee members raised concerns about incompatibilities between implementations and frequent modifications of the standard .
= = = Influences on other languages = = =
COBOL 's data structures influenced subsequent programming languages . Its record and file structure influenced PL / I and Pascal , and the REDEFINES clause was a predecessor to Pascal 's variant records . Explicit file structure definitions preceded the development of database management systems and aggregated data was a significant advance over Fortran 's arrays .
COBOL 's COPY facility , although considered " primitive " , influenced the development of include directives .
The focus on portability and standardization meant programs written in COBOL could be portable and facilitated the spread of the language to a wide variety of hardware platforms and operating systems . Additionally , the well @-@ defined division structure restricts the definition of external references to the Environment Division , which simplifies platform changes in particular .
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= Imaginos =
Imaginos is the eleventh studio album by the American hard rock band Blue Öyster Cult ( commonly shortened as BÖC ) . It was released in 1988 , and was their last recording with their original record label , CBS / Columbia Records . The album took nearly eight years to complete and was originally intended to be the first in a trilogy of solo albums by Blue Öyster Cult drummer and songwriter Albert Bouchard . Bouchard was fired in August 1981 , and CBS rejected the album in 1984 , but a re @-@ worked version was eventually published as a product of the band . Many musicians contributed to the project over this eight @-@ year span , including Joe Satriani and Doors guitarist Robby Krieger , but some band members were barely involved in the recording process . Thus , Imaginos is often considered more as a project of producer and lyricist Sandy Pearlman than as a true album of the band .
Imaginos weaves scripts and poems by Pearlman , dating from the second half of the 1960s , into a concept album and rock opera about an alien conspiracy that is brought to fruition during the late 19th and early 20th century through the actions of Imaginos , an agent of evil . The tale combines elements of gothic literature and science fiction and is strongly inspired by the work of H. P. Lovecraft . Subtitled " a bedtime story for the children of the damned " , it has an intricate storyline whose often @-@ obscure lyrics contain many historical references , and is still an object of speculation by fans and critics . It is often considered one of the heaviest albums released by Blue Öyster Cult , its music more akin to heavy metal than the melodic and commercial hard rock of their two previous works . The poor sales of those albums resulted in record label pressure on the band that led to their disbandment in 1986 ; a subsequent comeback featured only three members of the classic line @-@ up .
The album received some critical acclaim , but achieved no commercial success , and Columbia Records ended their contract with Blue Öyster Cult at the completion of the Imaginos Tour . Albert Bouchard , excluded from the recording progress of Imaginos after the initial rejection from Columbia Records , then took legal action against the band and the label to protect his rights as author and producer on the album . Blue Öyster Cult continued to perform and remained a live attraction , but ten years passed before they released an album of new songs .
= = Background = =
= = = Sandy Pearlman and The Soft Doctrines of Imaginos = = =
The concept and the character of Imaginos were originally created by the young Sandy Pearlman for a collection of poems and scripts called The Soft Doctrines of Imaginos ( sometimes reported as Immaginos ) , written in the mid @-@ 1960s during his formative years as a student of anthropology and sociology at the universities of Stony Brook , Brandeis and New School . Pearlman combined cultural references learned in his studies with elements of gothic literature and science fiction , and created a secret history about the origin of the two world wars . Pearlman himself declared his predilection for the American weird fiction author " H. P. Lovecraft and other writers of that ilk " , as well as for books on modern warfare and conspiracies .
Established by 1967 as a critic for the seminal US music magazine Crawdaddy ! , Pearlman was also the mentor , manager and producer for the band Soft White Underbelly , which , after various changes of name , became Blue Öyster Cult , a term taken from the Imaginos script . The adapted and amended rhymes of Pearlman , along with his friend and colleague Richard Meltzer 's arcane writings , were used as lyrics for most of the band 's early songs ; musician and writer Lenny Kaye recalls in his introduction to the re @-@ mastered edition of their first album that " the band kept a folder full of Meltzer 's and Pearlman 's word associations in their rehearsal room , and would leaf through it , setting fragments to music " . Fragments of the Imaginos script are scattered out @-@ of @-@ context throughout the songs of the first four albums , where the original meanings are lost to listeners unaware of the larger picture . The resulting mystery feeds fan fascination for the music of Blue Öyster Cult , and is responsible for their reputation as " the world 's brainiest heavy metal band " . Much fan speculation centers around lyrics ' relationship to the Imaginos storyline , while Pearlman 's deliberate reticence and misleading in revealing his sources only augments the obscurity of the matter . During the band 's first period of activity , the theme of the alien conspiracy became more defined and predominant in the mind of its author , to the point that notes on the cover of their 1974 album Secret Treaties referred to the secret history conceived by Pearlman , while its songs " Astronomy " and " Subhuman " contained lyrics fully dedicated to the Imaginos plot .
The band sought to separate creatively from Pearlman in the late 1970s ; they avoided his lyrics and concepts and refused to record an album entirely dedicated to Imaginos , but eventually returned to his material for the lyrics of " Shadow of California " ( from The Revölution by Night of 1983 ) and " When the War Comes " ( from Club Ninja of 1985 ) . Pearlman and Albert Bouchard hoped to record such an album , and as far back as 1972 had begun to write songs directly inspired by the Imaginos ' story . Nonetheless , with the exception of the extracts used for song lyrics , the text of The Soft Doctrines of Imaginos remains to this day largely unknown and unpublished .
= = = Blue Öyster Cult in 1988 = = =
The commercial success of the single " ( Don 't Fear ) The Reaper " in 1976 , and a series of Platinum and Gold discs in the following years , placed pressure on the band as their label , Columbia Records , expected them to repeat these successes . Despite good sales of the album Fire of Unknown Origin and the single " Burnin ' for You " , in August 1981 the conflicts and the stress accumulated in more than ten years of cohabitation led to the firing of drummer Albert Bouchard , a founding member and an important contributor to the songwriting and sound of the group , allegedly for unstable behavior . The relationship between the former band mates remained tense in the following years . Old feuds resurfaced during a short reunion tour with the original line @-@ up in 1985 , with the result that no one in the band accepted Albert Bouchard back in Blue Öyster Cult . However , A. Bouchard still hoped to be reinstated in the band through his work done for Imaginos .
Albert Bouchard 's departure started a rotation of personnel in the formerly stable band roster , which left by 1986 only Eric Bloom and Donald ' Buck Dharma ' Roeser as original members . Allen Lanier left in 1985 during the recording sessions for Club Ninja , unsatisfied by the music and annoyed at the presence of Tommy Zvoncheck as his replacement , while Joe Bouchard quit soon after that album 's release to pursue different career opportunities , play other musical genres , and settle in his family life . The release of two expensive studio albums in 1983 and 1985 , which received generally bad critical response and sold poorly , ruined the relationship with their demanding record label and left the band with little support and very few ideas on how to go on with their careers . As a result , " in the summer of 1986 , the band semi @-@ officially broke up " , Bloom explained in an interview to the British music magazine Kerrang ! in 1988 . The final line @-@ up of 1986 included Bloom , Roeser , Tommy Zvoncheck on keyboards , Jon Rogers on bass and Jimmy Willcox on drums .
Pearlman 's and Steve Schenk 's managerial efforts were rewarded when Blue Öyster Cult were hired for some gigs in Greece in July 1987 . After a nine @-@ month layoff , the band returned to activity and Allen Lanier re @-@ joined . The European shows were a success , and the reformed line @-@ up of Bloom , Roeser , Lanier , Jon Rogers and drummer Ron Riddle worked very well together on stage . Blue Öyster Cult returned to the road in 1987 and 1988 with renewed enthusiasm , but without a new album to promote , until the release of Imaginos .
= = Concept and storyline = =
Imaginos was envisioned as a rock opera to be published as a trilogy of double albums , with a storyline encompassing about two hundred years of history , from the beginning of the 19th century to the end of the 20th . This album represents an abbreviated version of the first volume of that planned trilogy , but with the songs arranged out of order , rendering the story harder to comprehend . Even when the song lyrics are analyzed in the chronological order that was devised by the authors and is followed in this section , the narrative progression is scarce and the content often difficult to decipher for the casual reader . However , thanks to various comments in interviews by Pearlman and Bouchard , and the extensive sleeve notes by Pearlman that were issued with the original release , it is possible to reconstruct the story to a great extent .
Although often referred to as a dream , the concept behind Imaginos is what Pearlman described as " an interpretation of history – an explanation for the onset of World War I , or a revelation of the occult origins of it " , which he crafted on elements of mythology , sociology , alchemy , science and occultism . This " combination of horror story and fairy tale " cites historical facts and characters , and is filled with literate references to ancient civilizations in a conspiracy theory of epic proportions , the subject of which is the manipulation of the course of human history .
Central to this story are Les Invisibles ( The Invisible Ones ) , a group of seven beings worshipped by the natives of Mexico and Haiti prior to the arrival of Spanish colonists in the 16th century , identified by some fans as the Loa of the Voodoo religion . The nature of Les Invisibles is left unclear , though it is hinted that they may be extraterrestrials , or beings akin to the Great Old Ones in the works of H. P. Lovecraft . An interpretation of the lyrics of the song " Astronomy " by some fans suggests that the star Sirius is of particular astrological significance to Les Invisibles , with clues identifying it as their place of origin ; it is during the so @-@ called Dog Days of August , when Sirius is in conjunction with the Sun that their influence over mankind is at its apex . By subtly influencing the minds of men , the beings are said to be " playing with our history as if it 's a game " , affecting events in world history over the course of centuries . For the three centuries after European discovery of the New World , this game plays out as the desire for gold is used to transform Spain into the dominant power in Europe , only to be usurped by England in the 17th century and later , through technology , by other nations ( " Les Invisibles " ) .
The principal story begins in August 1804 , with the birth of a " modified child " called Imaginos , in the American state of New Hampshire . Because of the astrological significance of the place and time of his birth , Imaginos is of particular interest to Les Invisibles , who begin investing him with superhuman abilities while he is young . Unaware of his true destiny or nature , the young Imaginos finds out that he is apparently able to change his appearance at will and to see the future ( " Imaginos " ) . As the child becomes an adult he finds himself affected by wanderlust and , billing himself as an adventurer , sets out to explore Texas and the western frontier , arriving in New Orleans in 1829 . It is there that he has a vision imploring him to travel to Mexico in search of an artifact " lost , last and luminous , scored to sky yet never found " . Imaginos joins the crew of a ship traveling to the Yucatán Peninsula , but while passing through the Gulf of Mexico , the ship encounters a freak storm of which his visions failed to warn him ( " Del Rio 's Song " ) . The ship sinks with most of its crew , and Imaginos , half dead , washes ashore and is left for dead by the other survivors . As he lies dying " on a shore where oyster beds seem plush as down " , Imaginos is addressed by a symphony of voices who identify themselves as Les Invisibles . Imaginos ' true nature is revealed to him , and he is informed that the circumstances of his entire life have been manipulated to bring him to that specific moment in time . Having explained themselves to him , they offer him a choice – die as a human , or live as their servant ( " Blue Öyster Cult " ) . Imaginos accepts their offer , and is resurrected from the dead by the Blue Öyster Cult , the servants of Les Invisibles . He is inducted into the cult and given a new name - Desdinova , " Eternal Light " . He realizes that his descent and the origin of his powers comes from the stars where his masters live and becomes aware of his role in the making of history ( " Astronomy " ) .
Imaginos / Desdinova becomes from this point on an instrument of Les Invisibles ' manipulation of human history . For the next sixty @-@ three years , he insinuates himself into the world of European politics . He uses his ability to change identities to take the place of high @-@ ranking officials , whose offices he uses to bring about Les Invisibles ' will ( " I Am the One You Warned Me Of " ) , introducing new knowledge and technology to the unsuspecting world ( " The Siege and Investiture of Baron Von Frankenstein 's Castle at Weisseria " ) .
By 1892 , Imaginos is living in a mansion in Cornwall and has a nine @-@ year @-@ old granddaughter . Having by this time spent several decades studying mysticism and astrology , Imaginos discovers that Elizabethan England 's rise as a superpower coincided with John Dee 's acquisition of a magic obsidian mirror from Mexico , which serves as a bridge between Les Invisibles ' alien world and ours , and the means to spread their influence on Earth . Some fans see Les Invisibles ' actions in favour of England against Spain as a sort of vengeance for the extermination by the conquistadores of their worshippers in Central America , while others view their intervention as only part of the mysterious scheme carried on by the alien entities through the centuries ( " In the Presence of Another World " ) .
This revelation in mind , Imaginos decides that the time has come to reattempt his aborted mission to Mexico . On August 1 , 1892 , he sets sail aboard a " charmed ship " which , despite " storms on land and storms at sea " , delivers him faithfully to Mexico . After several months exploring the jungles of Yucatán he finds an undiscovered Mayan pyramid . Following a long passage into the interior of the pyramid he discovers a chamber carved from solid jade , in which he finds the " Magna of Illusion " , a twin of Dee 's magic mirror . Stealing away with the artifact , he returns to Cornwall a year to the day of his departure , which coincides with the tenth birthday of his granddaughter . Imaginos gives the mirror to the young girl as a birthday present , and for the following 21 years it sits collecting dust in her attic , silently poisoning the minds of European leaders . In 1914 , " World War I breaks out . A disease with a long incubation " ( " Magna of Illusion " ) .
The two songs excluded from the final release introduced further elements to the plot . " Gil Blanco County " , a song with music written by Allen Lanier for Soft White Underbelly in the late 1960s and recorded in the unpublished Elektra album of the Stalk @-@ Forrest Group ( now available as St. Cecilia : The Elektra Recordings ) , has short and elusive lyrics apparently detailing the escape of Imaginos from Texas to Arizona . The other song , " The Girl That Love Made Blind " , is an Albert Bouchard composition which explains that Imaginos ' powers include the capacity of moving " in and through time " , assuming different identities in every moment of history .
= = Production = =
= = = Albert Bouchard 's solo album = = =
Albert Bouchard began writing music for Imaginos following the release of the band 's first album in 1972 . There were plans as early as 1975 to release a concept album dedicated to Pearlman 's scripts , but the material was not ready . All of the songs had been written by 1977 , with the participation of various band members , and at least four of them ( " Astronomy " , " In the Presence of Another World " , " I Am the One You Warned Me Of " , " Imaginos " ) were completed and demoed during the recording sessions for the album Spectres . Demos of the other tracks were recorded by A. Bouchard and remained in various stages of development during the following years , with the band uninterested in pursuing the Imaginos project that Albert Bouchard and Sandy Pearlman had been insistently proposing .
After A. Bouchard 's 1981 dismissal from Blue Öyster Cult , he and Pearlman worked on the material , having secured an advance from Columbia Records on the strength of the demos partially sung by Eric Bloom . The initial concept of a trilogy of double albums , largely based on music written during the band 's many years of activity and on adapted and rewritten Pearlman lyrics linked by the Imaginos storyline , is reflected in the working titles : Act I : Imaginos , Act II : Germany Minus Zero and Counting ( also known as Bombs over Germany and Half @-@ Life Time ) , and Act III : The Mutant Reformation . These were intended as Albert Bouchard solo albums , a spin @-@ off of Blue Öyster Cult main discography , although some fan opinion holds that Columbia Records had intended all along that the recordings would result in a new Blue Öyster Cult album .
Bouchard and Pearlman set up the recording of the basic tracks for the first album of the trilogy in June 1982 , with sound engineers Corky Stasiak and Paul Mandl at Kingdom Sound Studios in Long Island , New York , and at The Boogie Hotel , a studio owned by the boogie rock band Foghat and located in a large Victorian mansion in Port Jefferson , New York . At the same time and in the same facilities , Blue Öyster Cult were recording the album The Revölution by Night with producer Bruce Fairbairn . A. Bouchard sang lead vocals and played guitar on all tracks , accompanied by :
Tommy Morrongiello ( Ian Hunter Band , Helen Wheels ) , guitars and arrangements ,
Jack Rigg ( David Johansen Band ) and Phil Grande ( Peter Criss and Ellen Foley session musician ) , guitars ,
Tommy Mandel ( Ian Hunter Band , Bryan Adams ) , keyboards ,
Kenny Aaronson , bass ,
Thommy Price ( Scandal ) , drums .
The guitar solos by The Doors ' Robby Krieger , who had played live with Blue Öyster Cult on Extraterrestrial Live , and guitar parts by Aldo Nova and the late Kevin Carlson , guitarist of the Aldo Nova Band , should also be ascribed to these recording sessions . According to Bouchard , Jeff Kawalik , Corky Stasiak , Helen Wheels , Glen Bell , Peggy Atkins and Casper McCloud were among the uncredited background vocalists which participated to these sessions .
Allen Lanier , Joe Bouchard and Donald Roeser contributed instrumental parts and backing vocals to the tracks as guests . These remain Lanier 's and J. Bouchard 's only contributions to Imaginos . Columbia Records ' complaints about Albert Bouchard 's lead vocals pushed him to finance multiple recordings with try @-@ outs of singers , including Jon Rogers and Joey Cerisano , whose performances on some songs were used for the final mix of the album in 1988 . The new recordings , overdubs by other uncredited musicians , and mixing lasted until 1984 . Musicians involved in this second phase of recording included future BÖC keyboard player Tommy Zvoncheck , who had already played with Clarence Clemons , Public Image Ltd and The Dream Syndicate .
An almost @-@ finished product that comprised more than ninety minutes of music and whose thirteen tracks included re @-@ arranged versions of " Astronomy " and " Subhuman " ( retitled " Blue Öyster Cult " ) , " Gil Blanco County " , the ballad " The Girl That Love Made Blind " and a couple of chorales , was presented to Columbia Records executives in 1984 . They rejected the album and decided to shelve it , officially because of Albert Bouchard 's vocals and the lack of commercial perspectives .
= = = The Blue Öyster Cult album = = =
Despite the firm intention of Sandy Pearlman and Albert Bouchard to salvage the project , the recordings remained unfinished and untouched for more than two years due to lack of funding . While struggling with the long , complex and expensive production of the Blue Öyster Cult 's album Club Ninja , Pearlman associated himself with Daniel J. Levitin , A & R director of the local punk label 415 Records , with whom shared academic interests in neuroscience . In 1986 , Pearlman leased Studio C of San Francisco 's Hyde Street Recording Studios , and dubbed it Alpha & Omega Studios . Pearlman and Levitin produced various bands there , and Pearlman sub @-@ leased the studio to other producers . In September 1986 , when the poor sales of Club Ninja resulted in a commercial failure and the group disbanded , the lack of new material from the band for the foreseeable future prompted Pearlman to propose Imaginos to Columbia Records as a new Blue Öyster Cult album . He obtained a small budget from the record label to remix the album and to add the vocals of Roeser and Bloom , singers of all the hits produced by Blue Öyster Cult .
With Imaginos again a work in progress at the end of 1986 , band manager Steve Schenk contacted Albert Bouchard to get the original recordings he still owned . Pearlman , with the help of engineers Paul Mandl and Steve Brown , spent his time cleaning up , re @-@ arranging and remixing the original recordings , using state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art technology and the collaborations of studio musicians . Virtuoso guitarist Joe Satriani financed the recording of his second album , Surfing with the Alien , through his work on Imaginos . Similarly , thrash metal guitarist Marc Biedermann , whose band Blind Illusion was recording at Hyde Street Studios , mixed the album The Sane Asylum at Pearlman 's studio in exchange for his collaboration . Biedermann declared in a 2008 interview that he " played more lead guitar on that album than Buck Dharma " . Roeser went to California in early 1987 to record his lead vocals and some guitar parts , while Tommy Zvoncheck , still a member of Blue Öyster Cult , re @-@ recorded most of the keyboards on the album . The last parts recorded were the lead vocals by Eric Bloom , who was in the studio in early 1988 . Donald Roeser later summed up his and Bloom 's late involvement in the making of the album by saying " Imaginos was our parting of the ways . That was something that Eric and I agreed to do , sort of , out of respect for Sandy and his effort that he made with Imaginos " .
The as @-@ imagined album and the as @-@ released album bear little relation to each other . The final version of Imaginos is almost forty minutes shorter than the first version of 1984 and has two fewer songs , but as Pearlman explained , " we ran out of money and couldn 't do the whole thing " . The rhythm section of the original recording was kept mostly intact , but many guitars and most of the keyboards and lead vocals were re @-@ recorded or remixed . The song order was scrambled out of the fixed chronology , possibly because of the label executives ' intervention to have a more commercially attractive product . The sleeve notes ' definition of the album as a " random access myth ( where ) everything happens all at once " , appears to many as a posthumous justification for the mixed @-@ up song order . Imaginos does not contain ballads or an immediately recognizable commercial single , and its music is often considered the heaviest produced by Blue Öyster Cult , the best attempt by the band to produce a heavy metal album . Critics and fans point to elements of progressive rock also present in the music , which create a dark and " ominous " atmosphere that fits the obscure content of the song lyrics .
= = Packaging = =
Artist Greg Scott , who had supplied the cover art for the Blue Öyster Cult albums Fire of Unknown Origin , Extraterrestrial Live and The Revolution by Night , worked with Sandy Pearlman for several months in 1984 to prepare paintings inspired by the Imaginos saga for the gatefold cover of the expected double album . " And none of that was ever seen , because it was shelved " , Scott remarked in an interview with Canadian journalist Martin Popoff .
The art direction for the 1988 release was instead put in the hands of CBS Records ' art director Arnold Levine and his staff . They based the cover art on a fin de siècle image of the Cliff House , a restaurant perched on the cliffs just north of Ocean Beach on the western side of San Francisco , California , built with the architectural style of a Victorian château and destroyed by fire in 1907 . The back cover is a maritime landscape , modified to appear as the continuation of the picture on the front and similarly tinted in sinister black and grey colors .
The inner sleeve , besides the credits and Sandy Pearlman 's lengthy notes on the Imaginos story , sports a large black and white photo by landscape British photographer Simon Marsden of Duntrune Castle in Argyllshire , Scotland .
The credits printed on the sleeve of the first release were largely incomplete and made no distinction between the recording sessions of 1982 @-@ 84 and those of 1987 @-@ 88 , apparently validating the false assumption that the original line @-@ up of Blue Öyster Cult had reunited for the making of the album . Aside from the list of band members , the credits reported only some session musicians and other members of the so @-@ called Guitar Orchestra of the State of Imaginos , and omitted other personnel who had contributed to Imaginos .
= = Release = =
Imaginos was mastered at Precision Lacquer in Los Angeles by Stephen Marcussen and finally released as LP and CD on July 1988 , almost eight years after the work on it had begun and twenty @-@ three years after the concept of Imaginos was created . A limited edition of the album was also released in blue vinyl .
The first single extracted from the album was an edited version of " Astronomy " , which was released as a 7 " , as a 12 " and as a CD single . American author Stephen King recorded the spoken introduction to the radio edit of the song , a reading of the lines written on the back cover of the LP . The 12 " contains various mixes of " Astronomy " , including one sung by Albert Bouchard . The single received sufficient radio airplay to reach No. 12 in the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in September 1988 , but it did not enter the US singles chart . The CD single " In the Presence of Another World " was issued later only for promotional purposes , but received no attention from FM radio stations .
The album was largely neglected by the record label , which did little to no promotion in the US . Pearlman stated that " there was actually no intention on the part of Columbia Records at all to promote it . ( ... ) Basically the people wanted to work it and they were told not to work it " . Roeser commented later that he did not " think Sony ’ s ever really known how to sell us , from the beginning ( ... ) and Columbia never felt that they knew how to market us " . Imaginos fared better with CBS International , which distributed the album abroad and produced a music video for " Astronomy " in the UK , which aired in coincidence with the European tour dates of 1989 . The video clip does not feature members of the band , but begins with the spoken introduction by Stephen King and focuses on the storyline narrated in the album .
Albert Bouchard had been completely excluded from the retooling of the album for contractual reasons , but hoped to have his long work rewarded with a credit as co @-@ producer , and to be paid accordingly . After the disbandment of Blue Öyster Cult , he contacted the other band members in an attempt to organize a 1987 reunion tour , with the original line @-@ up , to promote Imaginos . His economic and membership requests were both rejected , due to resistances within the label and within the band , so he filed a lawsuit in 1989 against the management of Blue Öyster Cult and Columbia Records to receive payment for his work . The lawsuit was settled out of court , but his resentment towards Sandy Pearlman for what he felt was a theft of his work never eased , eliminating any chance of future collaborations for the completion of the Imaginos saga .
One of the final mixes of 1984 , titled Albert Bouchard 's Imaginos , surfaced on the Internet in 2003 as a free download . The album contains music recorded during the sessions from 1982 to 1984 and permits a comparison of arrangements , vocals and sound with the version published in 1988 .
Imaginos was re @-@ issued only once , through Sony BMG sub @-@ label American Beat Records in December 2007 . The 2007 reissue was remastered to adjust the volume levels and included a CD sleeve with corrected , but not complete , credits . A new remastered version of Imaginos is included in the The Columbia Albums Collection boxed set , issued by Sony / Legacy in November 2012 .
= = Tour = =
Blue Öyster Cult interrupted their schedule of US shows only just before the album release in June 1988 , to familiarize the band members with the new material . The 1987 formation with Bloom , Roeser , Lanier , Rogers and Riddle remained the closest available to a full reunion , given J. Bouchard 's unwillingness to participate and the opposition to A. Bouchard . The Imaginos Tour began in the East Coast of the US in July , and continued on to most of the States . The set lists were based mainly on old material and included only two or three songs from Imaginos , usually " I Am the One You Warned Me Of " , " In the Presence of Another World " and the new version of " Astronomy " . Blue Öyster Cult visited Canada in January 1989 , France in February , the United Kingdom in March , and concluded their European tour in Germany in April .
During the following US tour , the new management of Columbia Records , which had been sold to Sony Music in 1988 , terminated Columbia 's almost 20 @-@ year relationship with Blue Öyster Cult because of their low sales . This left them without a recording contract for the next ten years . Eric Bloom stated that " in general , CBS was straight with us , when we had fans working inside the company " , but after " 3 @-@ 4 different Presidents of the company came and went " the commercial appeal of Blue Öyster Cult had disappeared for the new management .
A review of their performance at The Ritz in New York on January 6 , 1989 highlights the good shape and musicianship of the band , but remarks that the new songs were played with considerably less enthusiasm than the rest of the show . Although the band continued to tour regularly , the songs from Imaginos had already disappeared from their shows by the end of 1989 , never to be performed live again .
= = Critical and commercial reception = =
Imaginos received mixed reviews both from professional critics and fans .
David Fricke , in his review for the magazine Rolling Stone , considers Imaginos " the best black @-@ plastic blitz to bear the Cult 's trademark cross and claw since 1974 's Secret Treaties " , but remarks that the " lengthy gestation " of the album and the many musicians involved makes it " a bit of a cheat for Cult Purists " , and that is " only an illusionary re @-@ creation of the way BÖC used to be " . William Ruhlmann of AllMusic wrote that Imaginos is " the album that comes closest to defining Blue Öyster Cult " and their " creative swan song " , and " perhaps BÖC 's most consistent album , certainly its most uncompromising ( ... ) and also the closest thing to a real heavy @-@ metal statement from a band that never quite fit that description " . For Don Kaye of Kerrang ! , the album is " the best BÖC slab since ( ... ) Cultösaurus Erectus and harks back in style and attitude towards the brilliance of masterpieces like Secret Treaties and Spectres " . A contrary evaluation comes from Blue Öyster Cult biographer Martin Popoff , who has " come to dismiss it as somewhat of a sell @-@ out " . Despite it being " the band 's heaviest , fulfilling many a fan ’ s wish for sustained metal " , Popoff finds " the whole thing perched on the edge of parody , too dressy and fantastical lyrically in a painfully self @-@ conscious way , ( ... ) a laborious exercise in expected weird " , ultimately " a baffling yet anticlimactic punctuation to the band ’ s perplexed career " . A reviewer from the Italian music criticism site Storia della Musica points out that the album is now a ' cult ' item for its rarity , its content and the scarce love shown by the band for this work . He writes that " it could have been the Tommy or The Dark Side of the Moon of BÖC " but , " despite the profound influences it evokes " , its " mutilated and sabotaged form " and the disinterest of the musicians involved makes Imaginos only a wasted opportunity .
The reviews posted by Blue Öyster Cult 's fans and by buyers of the album on the customer review site Epinions and on the online collaborative metadata database Rate Your Music are in general quite positive , praising Imaginos as a " creative masterpiece " , but underlining that the work is not a group effort but " the brain @-@ child of original drummer Albert Bouchard and longtime producer and lyricist Sandy Pearlman " . A professional Italian reviewer describes the Blue Öyster Cult name on the cover as " only a commercial decoy " for an Albert Bouchard solo album .
The album entered the Billboard 200 album chart on August 19 , 1988 , peaked at No. 122 , and exited the charts on October 8 . It sold about 50 @,@ 000 copies in the US , and was a commercial failure for Columbia Records and a financial failure for the band , which was forced through legal action to pay back the money used for both the recording of Albert Bouchard 's solo album and for the re @-@ recording of Imaginos .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
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= Cambodian – Vietnamese War =
The Cambodian – Vietnamese War was an armed conflict between the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and Democratic Kampuchea . The war began with isolated clashes along the land and maritime boundaries of Vietnam and Kampuchea between 1975 and 1977 , occasionally involving division @-@ sized military formations . On 25 December 1978 , Vietnam launched a full @-@ scale invasion of Kampuchea and subsequently occupied the country and removed the Khmer Rouge government from power .
During the Vietnam War , Vietnamese and Khmer Rouge communists had formed an alliance to fight U.S.-backed regimes in their respective countries . Despite their open display of cooperation with the Vietnamese , the Khmer Rouge leadership feared that the Vietnamese communists were scheming to form an Indochinese federation with Vietnam as the dominant force in the region . In order to preempt an attempt by the Vietnamese to dominate them , the Khmer Rouge leadership began purging Vietnamese @-@ trained personnel within their own ranks as the Lon Nol regime capitulated in 1975 . Then , in May 1975 , the newly formed Democratic Kampuchea , dominated by the Khmer Rouge , began waging a war against Vietnam , which was marked by an attack on the Vietnamese island of Phú Quốc . In spite of the fighting that had occurred between the two countries , the leaders of reunified Vietnam and Kampuchea made several public diplomatic exchanges throughout 1976 to highlight the supposedly strong relations between them . However , behind the scenes , Kampuchean leaders continued to fear what they perceived as Vietnamese expansionism . As such , on 30 April 1977 , they launched another major military attack on Vietnam . Shocked by the Kampuchean assault , Vietnam launched a retaliatory strike at the end of 1977 in an attempt to force the Kampuchean Government to negotiate . In January 1978 , the Vietnamese military withdrew because their political objectives had not been achieved .
Small @-@ scale fighting continued between the two countries throughout 1978 , as China tried to mediate peace talks between the two sides . However , neither country could reach an acceptable compromise at the negotiation table . By the end of 1978 , Vietnamese leaders decided to remove the Khmer Rouge @-@ dominated regime of Democratic Kampuchea , perceiving it as being pro @-@ Chinese and too hostile towards Vietnam . On 25 December 1978 , 150 @,@ 000 Vietnamese troops invaded Democratic Kampuchea and overran the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army in just two weeks . On 8 January 1979 , a pro @-@ Vietnamese People 's Republic of Kampuchea ( PRK ) was established in Phnom Penh , marking the beginning of a ten @-@ year Vietnamese occupation . During that period , the Khmer Rouge 's Democratic Kampuchea continued to be recognised by the United Nations as the legitimate government of Kampuchea , as several armed resistance groups were formed to fight the Vietnamese occupation . Behind the scenes , Prime Minister Hun Sen of the PRK regime approached factions of the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea ( CGDK ) to begin peace talks . Under heavy diplomatic and economic pressure from the international community , the Vietnamese Government implemented a series of economic and foreign policy reforms , which led to their withdrawal from Kampuchea in September 1989 .
At the Third Jakarta Informal Meeting in 1990 , under the Australian @-@ sponsored Cambodian Peace Plan , representatives of the CGDK and the PRK agreed to a power @-@ sharing arrangement by forming a unity government known as the Supreme National Council ( SNC ) . The SNC 's role was to represent Cambodian sovereignty on the international stage , while the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia ( UNTAC ) was tasked with supervising the country 's domestic policies until a Cambodian government was elected by the people through a peaceful , democratic process . Cambodia 's pathway to peace proved to be difficult , as Khmer Rouge leaders decided not to participate in the general elections , but instead they chose to disrupt the electoral process by launching military attacks on UN peacekeepers and killing ethnic Vietnamese migrants . In May 1993 , Sihanouk 's FUNCINPEC movement defeated the Cambodian People 's Party ( CPP ) , formerly the Kampuchean People 's Revolutionary Party ( KPRP ) , to win the general elections . However , the CPP leadership refused to accept defeat and they announced that the eastern provinces of Cambodia , where most of the CPP 's votes were drawn from , would secede from Cambodia . To avoid such an outcome , Norodom Ranariddh , the leader of FUNCINPEC agreed to form a coalition government with the CPP . Shortly afterwards , the constitutional monarchy was restored and the Khmer Rouge was outlawed by the newly formed Cambodian Government .
= = Etymology = =
In Vietnam , the war is called " The campaign of counter @-@ invasion at Vietnam 's national South @-@ West border " - " Chiến dịch Phản công Biên giới Tây @-@ Nam Việt Nam . "
= = Background = =
= = = Cambodian @-@ Vietnamese history = = =
Angkor , the seat of the Khmer Empire was subjected to Vietnamese influence as early as the 13th century . Vietnamese influence spread gradually and indirectly , and it was not until the early 19th century that Vietnam exercised direct control . In 1813 , Nak Ong Chan gained the Cambodian throne with the help of Vietnam , and under his rule Cambodia became a protectorate . Following his death in 1834 , Vietnam colonised Cambodia ; it was governed under a Vietnamese administration and termed a Vietnamese ‘ province ’ . Throughout the 1830s , Vietnam attempted to erase Khmer culture , which had derived the basis of Cambodian society , dress and religion from India rather than China . The trend of Vietnamese dominance continued during French colonization , under which Cambodia was forced to cede much of its southern cone ( which would later be Saigon , the Mekong Delta and Tây Ninh ) to the Vietnamese . The Khmer Rouge later justified their incursions into Vietnam as an attempt to regain the territories which Cambodia lost during the previous centuries .
= = = Rise of communism = = =
The communist movement in Cambodia and Vietnam began before World War II with the founding of the Indochinese Communist Party ( ICP ) , almost exclusively dominated by the Vietnamese , originally meant to fight French colonial rule in Indochina . In 1941 , Nguyen Ai Quoc ( commonly known by his alias Ho Chi Minh ) founded the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi , or the Viet Minh . When the Japanese were defeated at the end of World War II , he initiated the first Indochinese war of independence against the French . During this time , Vietnamese forces made extensive use of Cambodian territory to transport weapons , supplies , and troops . This relationship lasted throughout the Vietnam War , when Vietnamese communists used Cambodia as a transport route and staging area for attacks on South Vietnam . In 1951 , Vietnam guided the establishment of a separate Cambodian communist party , the Kampuchean People 's Revolutionary Party ( KPRP ) , which allied with a nationalist separatist Cambodian movement , the Khmer Serei ( Free Khmers ) , in order to pursue independence . In accordance with the 1954 Geneva Accords negotiating the end of the French domination , newly created communist North Vietnam pulled all of its Viet Minh soldiers and cadres out of Cambodia ; however , since the KPRP was staffed primarily by ethnic Vietnamese or Cambodians under its tutelage , approximately 5 @,@ 000 Communist cadres went with them .
The power vacuum the Vietnamese communists left in its wake in Cambodia was soon filled by the return of a young group of Cambodian communist revolutionaries , many of whom received their communist education in France . In 1960 , the KPRP changed its name to the Kampuchean Communist Party ( KCP ) , and the name was later adopted by the majority coalition that formed around Saloth Sar ( Pol Pot ) , Ieng Sary and Khieu Samphan as the ‘ true ’ political institution memorialising the KCP . This clique became the genesis of the Khmer Rouge , and its doctrine was heavily influenced by the Maoist ideology .
= = = Lon Nol 's Anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiment = = =
After overthrowing pro @-@ China Sihanouk , Cambodian leader Lon Nol , despite being anti @-@ Communist and ostensibly in the " pro @-@ American " camp , backed FULRO against all Vietnamese , both anti @-@ communist South Vietnam and the Communist Viet Cong . Lon Nol planned a slaughter of all Vietnamese in Cambodia and a restoration of South Vietnam to a revived Champa state .
Vietnamese were slaughtered and dumped in the Mekong River at the hands of Lon Nol 's anti @-@ Communist forces . The Khmer Rouge later imitated Lon Nol 's actions .
= = = Democratic Kampuchea and the Khmer Rouge = = =
The Khmer Rouge government adopted the mysterious term Angkar , or " the organisation " and , until 1977 , the identities of its leaders remained confidential . The official head of state was Khieu Samphan , but the two men in control of the Party were Pol Pot and Ieng Sary . The ultimate objective of the Khmer Rouge was to erase the structure of the Cambodian state , which they viewed as feudal , capitalist , and serving the agendas of both the landholding elite and imperialists . In its place , they hoped to create a classless society based entirely on worker @-@ peasants . The radical ideologies and goals of the Khmer Rouge were alien concepts to the masses . In fact , the socialist revolution held very little popular appeal , which led Pol Pot and his cadres to use ultra @-@ nationalist sentiment , repressive and murderous rule and propaganda aimed at demonising the Vietnamese to maintain their tenuous control .
During the five years of the Khmer Rouge rebellion from 1970 to 1975 , the support of North Vietnam , in conjunction with China , was essential to its eventual triumph . However , even before the Vietnam War ended , the relationship between the Khmer Rouge — which was in the process of seizing power from a US @-@ backed regime headed by Lon Nol — and Vietnam was strained . Clashes between Vietnamese communists and Khmer Rouge forces began as early as 1974 , and the following year Pol Pot signed a treaty codifying the ‘ friendship ’ between the Khmer Rouge and China .
= = Diplomacy and military action = =
= = = 1975 – 76 , from fighting to building friendly relations = = =
The conclusion of the Cambodian Civil War and the Fall of Saigon in April 1975 immediately brought a new conflict between Vietnam and Kampuchea . Although both the North Vietnamese and the Khmer Rouge had previously fought side by side , the leaders of the newly created Democratic Kampuchea continued to view Vietnam with great suspicion , because they believed the Vietnamese Communists had never given up their dream of creating an Indochinese federation with Vietnam as the leader . For that reason , the Kampuchean Government decided to remove all North Vietnamese military forces from Kampuchean territory shortly after their capture of Phnom Penh on 17 April 1975 . In the first major clash between the two former allies , the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army invaded the Vietnamese island of Phú Quốc on 1 May 1975 ( barely 24 hours after Saigon fell ) , which they claimed was part of Kampuchea ’ s territory .
Nine days later , on 10 May 1975 , the Kampuchean military continued its incursion by capturing Thổ Chu , where it executed 500 Vietnamese civilians . The Vietnamese military immediately responded to Kampuchean actions by launching a counter @-@ attack and removing Kampuchean forces from Phu Quoc and Tho Chu , and then invading the Kampuchean island of Koh Wai . In June 1975 , while on a visit to Hanoi , Kampuchean leader Pol Pot proposed that Vietnam and his country should sign a treaty of friendship and begin discussions on border disputes . However , those discussions never materialised , and the Kampucheans claimed that Vietnam turned down both offers . In August 1975 , Vietnam returned the island of Koh Wai to Kampuchea and formally recognised Kampuchean sovereignty over the island .
Following those incidents , both countries attempted to improve their diplomatic relations with a series of congratulatory messages and exchange visits . On 17 April 1976 , Vietnamese leaders sent a message to congratulate Khieu Samphan , Nuon Chea and Pol Pot on their " elections " as President , President of the People ’ s Representatives and Premier of Kampuchea , respectively . Furthermore , the Vietnamese even denounced the alleged " U.S. bombing " of Siem Reap in February 1976 , thereby reinforcing the Kampuchean ’ s fictitious claim over the incident . In response , in June 1976 , the Kampuchean leadership sent a message to the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam , which had governed South Vietnam since the fall of Saigon , congratulating them on the seventh anniversary of their establishment .
In July 1976 , following the establishment of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam as a reunified country , Phnom Penh Radio broadcast a commentary which proclaimed the " militant solidarity and friendship between peoples of Democratic Kampuchea and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam grow constantly greener and sturdier " . However , during that same month , Premier Pol Pot publicly hinted at tensions between Vietnam and Kampuchea when he told a visiting Vietnamese media delegation that there were “ obstacles and difficulties ” in the relationship between the two countries . Nonetheless , on 21 September 1976 , the first air service connecting Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with Phnom Penh was established . Then in December 1976 , the Kampuchean Revolutionary Organisation sent greetings to the Vietnamese Communist Party during their Fourth Congress .
= = = 1977 , build @-@ up to war = = =
Towards the end of 1976 , while Vietnam and Kampuchea publicly appeared to be improving their relationships , the private suspicions of both countries ' leadership grew . From the Vietnamese perspective , they were the patron of genuine Marxist – Leninist revolutions in South East Asia , so it was vital for them to exercise control over the Kampucheans and the Laotians . Indeed , that was the reason North Vietnam supported the Khmer Rouge during their fight against the Lon Nol regime , in the hope that the Kampuchean communists would adopt a pro @-@ Vietnamese line upon their victory in the same way the Pathet Lao had done . However , their hopes were dashed as early as 1973 , because North Vietnamese military formations operating in Khmer Rouge @-@ occupied territories were occasionally subjected to armed attacks by their own allies . The Vietnamese position inside Kampuchea was further weakened after the end of the war , as there were no pro @-@ Vietnamese elements left within the Kampuchean Communist Party .
Thus , when the pro @-@ Chinese Pol Pot and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Ieng Sary resigned from their respective positions as Premier and Foreign Minister in September 1976 , Vietnamese Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng and General Secretary of the Communist Party Lê Duẩn were optimistic that Vietnam could exercise greater influence on the Kampucheans . In a private meeting with the Soviet ambassador to Vietnam on 16 November 1976 , Lê Duẩn dismissed both Ieng Sary and Pol Pot as " bad people " for their pro @-@ Chinese policies . Le Duan then asserted that Nuon Chea , who had ascended to the position of Premier of Democratic Kampuchea as Pol Pot 's replacement , was a person of pro @-@ Vietnamese orientation , so Vietnam could exercise its influence through him . However , the events which developed over the next few months would prove Lê Duẩn had been mistaken in his assessment of Nuon Chea .
Meanwhile , in Phnom Penh , the Kampuchean leadership had developed a seething fear and hatred of the Vietnamese leadership as a result of Vietnam ’ s historical dominance over their country . From the Kampuchean perspective , the Vietnamese strategy to dominate Indochina involved infiltrating the communist parties of Kampuchea and Laos with Vietnamese @-@ trained cadres . For that reason , when the first group of North Vietnamese @-@ trained Khmer Rouge personnel returned to the country , they were immediately purged from the KCP . During the months following the defeat of the Lon Nol regime , Pol Pot continued to purge the KCP and the Government of Democratic Kampuchea of those who he believed to be Soviet and Vietnamese agents . Then , in the context of the triumphalism , which prevailed over the Khmer Rouge leadership in a war that they claimed they had single @-@ handedly defeated the " American imperialist " , Democratic Kampuchea began to embark on a war against Vietnam .
As the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army made preparations for its war against Vietnam , state @-@ controlled media in Vietnam sent congratulatory messages to the Government of the Democratic Kampuchea on the second anniversary of its establishment , on 17 April 1977 . On 30 April 1977 , the second anniversary of the fall of Saigon , the Kampuchean reply came in the form of a military attack against the Vietnamese provinces of An Giang and Châu Đốc , killing hundreds of Vietnamese civilians . The Vietnam People 's Army responded by moving its troops to areas attacked by Kampuchea and , on 7 June 1977 , Vietnam proposed high @-@ level talks to discuss outstanding issues . On 18 June 1977 , the Kampuchean Government replied by demanding that Vietnam remove all of its military units from the disputed areas , and create a demilitarised zone between the opposing forces .
Both sides ignored each other 's proposals , and the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army continued sending soldiers across the border to attack Vietnamese towns and villages . In September 1977 , Kampuchean artillery struck several Vietnamese villages along the border , and six villages in Đồng Tháp Province were overrun by Kampuchean infantry . Shortly afterwards , six divisions of the Kampuchea Revolutionary Army advanced about 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) into Tay Ninh Province , where they killed more than 1 @,@ 000 Vietnamese civilians . Angered by the scale of Kampuchean assaults , the Vietnam People ’ s Army ( VPA ) assembled eight divisions , estimated at around 60 @,@ 000 soldiers , to launch a retaliatory strike against Kampuchea . On 16 December 1977 , the VPA divisions , with support from elements of the Vietnam People 's Air Force , crossed the border along several axes with the objective of forcing the Kampuchean Government to negotiate .
On the battlefield , the Kampucheans quickly lost ground as their combat units were pushed back by the Vietnamese . By the end of December 1977 , Vietnam had won a clear military victory over Kampuchea , as Vietnamese formations marched through Svay Rieng Province and only stopped short of entering the provincial capital . Despite the ferocity of the Vietnamese retaliation , the Kampuchean Government remained defiant . On 31 December 1977 , Khieu Sampham declared that the Kampuchean Government would " temporarily " sever diplomatic relations with Vietnam until the Vietnamese military withdraw from the " sacred territory of Democratic Kampuchea " . On 6 January 1978 , VPA divisions were only 38 kilometers ( 24 mi ) from Phnom Penh , but the Vietnamese Government decided to withdraw its forces from Kampuchea because they had failed to achieve Vietnam ’ s political objective . During the withdrawal , the Vietnamese military also evacuated thousands of prisoners and civilian refugees , including future leader Hun Sen.
= = = 1978 , preparations for regime change = = =
Instead of being sobered by the Vietnamese show of force , the Kampuchean Government boasted that the Vietnamese withdrawal was a major victory for Democratic Kampuchea , comparing it to the “ defeat of U.S. imperialism ” on 17 April 1975 . The Kampucheans went on further to proclaim that " our 6 January victory over the annexationist , Vietnamese aggressor enemy has given all of us greater confidence in the forces of our people and nation , in our Kampuchean Communist Party and our Kampuchean Revolutionary Army , and in our Party ’ s line of people ’ s war " . The Kampuchean leadership claimed that one Kampuchean soldier was equal to 30 Vietnamese soldiers , so if Kampuchea could raise two million soldiers from a population of eight million , it could wipe out Vietnam ’ s population of 50 million and still have six million people left . In reality , Kampuchean leaders simply ignored the condition of the population in their own country and Vietnam ; the Vietnamese , though poor , were in good physical condition , while Kampuchea 's population was physically and mentally exhausted from years of hard labour , starvation and disease .
In addition to the disparity in population , there was also a great disparity between the fighting capabilities of the armed forces of the two countries . In 1977 , Vietnam was estimated to have 615 @,@ 000 soldiers and 900 tanks , supported by a 12 @,@ 000 @-@ member air force with 300 combat aircraft , including one squadron of light bombers . In comparison , Kampuchea had an army of 70 @,@ 000 , only a few heavy tanks , 200 armoured vehicles , and limited air capability . Despite facing such heavy odds , Kampuchea showed no signs of hesitation as its military continued to assault Vietnam ’ s border regions . In January 1978 , Kampuchean forces still held portions of Vietnamese territory and began overrunning Vietnamese outposts in Hà Tiên Province . On 27 January 1978 , Vietnam started calling on the Kampuchean military along the border regions to overthrow the Khmer Rouge regime .
Against the backdrop of military clashes , between 9 January and 20 February 1978 , Vietnamese Deputy Foreign Minister Phan Hien made several trips to Beijing to hold discussions with representatives of the Kampuchean Government , which ultimately proved to be fruitless . On 18 January 1978 , China attempted to mediate further negotiations between Kampuchea and Vietnam when Vice Premier Deng Yingchao travelled to Phnom Penh , where she was met with strong resistance by Kampuchean leaders . Meanwhile , Vietnamese government officials began conducting secret meetings with So Phim , the Khmer Rouge leader in Kampuchea 's Eastern Military Zone , to plan a military uprising backed by Vietnam . During that same period , military setbacks experienced by the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army in the Eastern Military Zone prompted Pol Pot to label the region as a " nest of traitors " .
In order to purge the Eastern Military Zone of those he perceived to have been contaminated by the Vietnamese , Pol Pot ordered military units from the Southwest Zone to move into eastern Kampuchea and eliminate the " hidden traitors " . Unable to withstand an attack from the Kampuchea Government , So Phim committed suicide while his deputy Heng Samrin defected to Vietnam . On 12 April 1978 , the Kampuchean Government declared they and Vietnam could negotiate again if the Vietnamese gave up their expansionist ambitions and recognised Kampuchea ’ s sovereignty . However , there was also a pre @-@ condition requiring Vietnam to meet several obligations through a seven @-@ month trial ceasefire . The Vietnamese Government immediately rejected the demand and , in response , two Kampuchean divisions penetrated up to 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) into Vietnamese territory , and massacred over 3 @,@ 000 Vietnamese civilians in the village of Ba Chúc in An Giang Province .
In June 1978 , the Vietnamese Air Force started bombing Kampuchean positions along the border regions , flying about 30 bombing sorties per day and inflicting heavy casualties on the Kampucheans . By that stage in the conflict , most surviving leaders of the Eastern Military Zone had escaped into Vietnam , where they assembled at various secret camps with the purpose of forming a Vietnamese @-@ backed " liberation army " to fight against the Khmer Rouge regime . Meanwhile , the Vietnamese Communist Party Politburo was meeting in Hanoi to discuss its strategy for Kampuchea . It concluded that the Khmer Rouge regime was a proxy of China , which had been trying to fill the power vacuum following the withdrawal of the United States . As such , China was identified as Vietnam ’ s main enemy , and its client regime in Phnom Penh had to be removed by conventional military force , because the Vietnamese adaptation of the Maoist " people 's war " doctrine had not been a success against the Khmer Rouge ’ s security apparatus .
To reflect the attitude of the country ’ s leaders , Vietnam 's state @-@ controlled media stepped up its propaganda war against the Khmer Rouge , with the official Nhân Dân newspaper regularly calling for international intervention to save the Kampuchean people from domestic terror initiated by the Khmer Rouge regime . Furthermore , instead of sending congratulatory messages like they had done in the previous years , the Vietnamese media changed their tone and began referring to the Kampuchean Government as the " Pol Pot @-@ Ieng Sary clique " as the Kampuchean military continued their campaign in Vietnam . By the end of June , the Vietnamese military assembled a multi @-@ division task force to launch another limited @-@ objective campaign against the Kampucheans . Again , the Vietnamese pushed the Kampuchean forces back into the provincial cities of Suong and Prey Veng and then pulled out . However , as they had done before , the Kampuchean Army moved its artillery back towards the border and continued shelling Vietnamese villages as though nothing had happened .
During the second half of 1978 , Vietnamese leaders devoted much of their energy towards the military campaign against the Khmer Rouge regime , by seeking political support from the Soviet Union . In a briefing with Vietnamese Foreign Ministry officials on 25 July 1978 , the Soviet chargé d 'affaires in Hanoi was told that the Kampuchean Government had deployed 14 of its 17 regular army divisions and 16 local regiments along the border with Vietnam . Then , in early September 1978 , Lê Duẩn informed the Soviet ambassador that Vietnam aimed to " solve fully this question of Kampuchea by the beginning of 1979 " . While Vietnam was laying the political foundation for the military campaign against Kampuchea , Soviet ships were reported to be unloading military hardware and ammunition in Cam Ranh Bay . In October 1978 , Vietnamese radio broadcast what they claimed were accounts of uprisings against the Khmer Rouge regime , urging members of the Kampuchean military either to overthrow the " Pol Pot @-@ Ieng Sary clique " or defect to Vietnam .
In a major turning point in the course of Soviet @-@ Vietnamese and Sino @-@ Vietnamese diplomatic relations , and ultimately the Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea , a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation was signed between Vietnam and the Soviet Union on 3 November 1978 , which guaranteed the former of vital Soviet military aid in the scenario that China intervened in the conflict . Later , in November 1978 , a command and control headquarters was established for the planned invasion of Kampuchea , with Senior General Lê Đức Anh taking full control of VPA units along the border areas . The Vietnamese government drafted 350 @,@ 000 men into the military to replace earlier losses and augment its units along the border . While the new recruits were completing training , ten divisions were deployed to the border regions of Long An , Đồng Tháp and Tây Ninh provinces . Vietnam also shifted three divisions based in Laos south towards the Laos @-@ Kampuchea border . On 13 December 1978 , the Chinese Government warned Vietnam that its patience was limited , and that Vietnam would be punished if it behaved in an " unbridled fashion " .
Nonetheless , the final piece of the Vietnamese strategy emerged when Vietnam announced the formation of the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation ( KUFNS ) in the " liberation zones " of Kampuchea . Hanoi claimed that KUFNS was an independent Kampuchean communist movement , with members drawn from all walks of life . Heng Samrin , formerly a member of the Khmer Rouge and commander of the Kampuchean 4th Division , was the chairman of the KUFNS Central Committee . Previously , the KUFNS was known as the Provisional Revolutionary Government of Kampuchea ( PRGK ) , which consisted of 300 former Khmer Rouge cadres who defected to Vietnam . The PRGK regularly sent representatives abroad in search of support , before Vietnam abandoned the ‘ people ’ s war ’ concept in favour of a conventional military campaign .
Not to be outdone by the Vietnamese military build @-@ up , the Government of Democratic Kampuchea was busy strengthening its armed forces with Chinese support . In previous years , China had only provided the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army with a limited amount of arms and ammunition , but as relations with Vietnam worsened in 1978 , Beijing established additional supply routes through Kampuchea and increased the volume of military hardware which travelled down each route . On the eve of the Vietnamese invasion , Kampuchea had an estimated 73 @,@ 000 soldiers in the Eastern Military Zone bordering Vietnam . At that time , all branches of the Kampuchean armed forces were significantly strengthened by large quantities of Chinese @-@ made military equipment , which included fighter aircraft , patrol boats , heavy artillery , anti @-@ aircraft guns , trucks and tanks . Additionally , there were between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 Chinese advisers in both military and civilian capacities , providing their support to the Khmer Rouge regime .
= = Invasion of Kampuchea = =
On 21 December 1978 , Kampuchea ’ s new @-@ found strength was tested when a Vietnamese offensive , consisting of two divisions , crossed the border and moved towards the town of Kratie , while other support divisions were deployed along local routes to cut off the logistical tail of Kampuchean units . Despite enjoying generous support from China , the Kampuchean military could not withstand the Vietnamese offensive and suffered heavy casualties . Finally , on 25 December 1978 , Vietnam launched a full @-@ scale invasion using 13 divisions , estimated at 150 @,@ 000 soldiers well @-@ supported by heavy artillery and air power . Initially , Kampuchea directly challenged Vietnam ’ s military might through conventional fighting methods , but this tactic resulted in the loss of half of the Kampuchean Revolutionary Army within two weeks . Heavy defeats on the battlefield prompted much of the Kampuchean leadership to evacuate towards the western region of the country . On 7 January 1979 , the Vietnamese Army entered Phnom Penh along with members of the KUFNS . On the following day , a pro @-@ Vietnamese Kampuchean state , known as the People 's Republic of Kampuchea ( PRK ) , was established , with Heng Samrin as the Chief of State and Pen Sovan as General Secretary of the Kampuchean People 's Revolutionary Party .
The Khmer Rouge leadership , with much of its political and military structures shattered by the Vietnamese invasion , was forced to take refuge in Thailand , where it was warmly welcomed by the Thai Government . Despite the overwhelming economic challenges brought by the Khmer Rouge and the accompanying refugees , the Thai Government sheltered and protected the Khmer Rouge at Khao Larn camp in Trat Province . Meanwhile , in Phnom Penh , the new Kampuchean regime tried to rebuild the country ’ s economic and social life , which was largely destroyed by decades of political upheavals and constant warfare . However , efforts to rebuild the country were severely hampered by the lack of educated and qualified personnel , as most educated people had either fled the country or had been murdered by the Khmer Rouge regime during the previous four years . By the end of the year , the new regime ’ s attempts at nation @-@ building were further challenged by several anti @-@ Vietnamese resistance groups operating along the western regions of the country .
= = = Response from the international community = = =
Shortly after the fall of Phnom Penh to Vietnamese forces and their Kampuchean allies in January 1979 , representatives of Democratic Kampuchea called for an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council , so Prince Norodom Sihanouk could present the deposed regime 's case . Despite strong objections from the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia , the UN Security Council gave Sihanouk this chance . Although Sihanouk distanced himself from the human rights abuses of the Khmer Rouge , he accused Vietnam of using aggression to violate Kampuchea ’ s sovereignty . As such , he demanded all UN countries to suspend aid to Vietnam and not recognise the Vietnamese @-@ installed regime . Subsequently , seven non @-@ aligned members of the UN Security Council submitted a draft resolution calling for a ceasefire and the withdrawal of all foreign forces from Kampuchea , which was endorsed by China , France , Norway , Portugal , the United States and the United Kingdom . However , the resolution was not approved due to strong opposition from the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia . Critics of Vietnamese actions held that they did not invade Cambodia out of any noble desire to stop the atrocities committed by Pol Pot 's regime but rather to consolidate their domination of Indochina .
Between 16 – 19 February 1979 Vietnam and the new Kampuchean regime held a summit meeting which concluded with the two countries signing the Treaty of Peace , Friendship and Cooperation . Article 2 of the treaty stated that the security of Vietnam and Kampuchea were interrelated ; thus they would help defend each other “ against schemes and acts of sabotage by the imperialist and international reactionary forces ” , thereby legitimising the presence of Vietnamese troops on Kampuchean soil . Soon afterwards , the Soviet Union , the socialist countries of Eastern Europe and India recognised the Vietnamese @-@ installed People ’ s Republic of Kampuchea . The Soviet Government praised the PRK 's " remarkable victory " and expressed its full support for the regime 's advance towards socialism . Furthermore , the Soviets harshly criticised the Khmer Rouge regime 's record of terror , which they implied had been imposed by China .
At the 34th Session of the UN General Assembly , representatives of the People 's Republic of Kampuchea and Democratic Kampuchea both claimed the right to represent their country . The former also notified the member nations of the UN Security Council that it was the sole legitimate representative of Kampuchea and its people . In response , the UN Credentials Committee decided to recognise Democratic Kampuchea by a vote of six to three , despite the Khmer Rouge 's blood @-@ stained record while in power . Accordingly , representatives of Democratic Kampuchea were allowed to be seated in the General Assembly , with strong support from China . By January 1980 , 29 countries had established diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of Kampuchea , yet nearly 80 countries still recognised the legitimacy of the deposed Democratic Kampuchea . At the same time , the Western powers and the member countries of the Association of South East Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) also voiced strong condemnation of Vietnam ’ s use of force to remove the Khmer Rouge regime .
Thailand , which shared an 800 @-@ kilometer ( 500 @-@ mile ) border with Kampuchea and has historically feared Vietnam 's expansionism , demanded that Vietnam immediately remove its troops from Kampuchea so its people could elect a government free from foreign intervention . Indonesia , Malaysia , the Philippines and Singapore showed their support for Thailand 's position . Furthermore , ASEAN viewed Vietnam ’ s invasion and subsequent occupation of Kampuchea , which received strong Soviet support , as an intolerable threat to the region ’ s security and stability . That view was shared by China , which went as far as accusing Vietnam of forcing Kampuchea into an Indochinese federation to serve as an outpost of Soviet global hegemony . The United States , which never maintained any form of diplomatic ties with the Khmer Rouge ’ s Democratic Kampuchea , showed strong support for the membership of their former enemy in the UN General Assembly , and echoed ASEAN 's call for an immediate withdrawal of Vietnamese military forces from Kampuchea .
= = = China invades Vietnam = = =
On 17 February 1979 , China retaliated against Vietnam 's invasion of Kampuchea by attacking along the Sino @-@ Vietnam border , and within ten days had reached the provincial capitals . Fighting bogged down due to the maze of tunnels the Chinese encountered ; nevertheless , the Chinese army captured Cao Bằng on 2 March and Lạng Sơn on 4 March , reportedly advancing towards Hanoi at a high speed , though not on good terms with its supply lines . However , the following day , China announced that it would not move deeper into Vietnam , apparently after meeting fierce and unexpectedly harsh resistance by the well trained and experienced Vietnamese forces , supplied with American technology left behind from the Vietnam War . Confident that the threat of invasion had been a success , the Chinese retreated , leaving a path of destruction spanning 500 kilometers ( 310 mi ) in their wake . Although Chinese total losses were estimated to be higher than those of the Vietnamese ( 12 – 50 @,@ 000 compared to the Vietnamese death toll of approximately 10 @,@ 000 ) , the diversion of troops from Kampuchea facilitated a strong resurgence in Khmer Rouge insurgent operations , making it unavoidable for the young PRK regime in Kampuchea to implement conscription , and requiring Vietnam to station a large portion of its army along the Sino @-@ Vietnamese border .
= = = Internal resistance to the new regime = = =
When the Khmer Rouge regime was removed from power in January 1979 , the Kampuchean people hoped that peace and liberty would return to their country . This was reinforced by the Constitution of the People ’ s Republic of Kampuchea , proclaimed in 1981 , which specifically stated that Kampuchea is an independent , peaceful state where power belongs to the people . However , there was a deep contrast between what was written within the Kampuchean constitution and reality , because the Kampuchean people began to despair at what they viewed as the Vietnamese occupation of their country , rather than a liberation that had freed them from the brutality of Democratic Kampuchea . That perception was reinforced by the presence of Vietnamese advisers who worked at every level of Heng Samrin 's Kampuchean Government . In 1986 , for example , there was one Vietnamese adviser for every Kampuchean cabinet minister and one adviser for each one of their three deputy ministers . Furthermore , it was reported that final decisions made by a Kampuchean minister had to receive final approval from the Vietnamese adviser , who usually dictated policies . Opposition to Vietnamese was further fomented by human rights abuses committed by the Vietnamese and their allies . To fulfill its K5 Plan , a construction project to strengthen the Cambodia @-@ Thai border , the PRK government concripted 380 @,@ 000 people , with large numbers succumbing to malaria .
To resist the Vietnamese occupation of Kampuchea and the regime which they installed , the Khmer Rouge called on the Kampuchean people to unite and fight the Vietnamese . However , due to the brutality which they had experienced under the deposed regime , many Kampucheans believed that any political movement aimed at restoring national freedom must oppose both the Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese . In response to such preconditions , two non @-@ communist movements were formed to fight the Vietnamese occupation . The first group , a right @-@ wing and pro @-@ Western organisation , was formed in October 1979 by former Prime Minister Son Sann and was called the Khmer People 's National Liberation Front ( KPNLF ) . The KPNLF operated from several refugee camps on the Thai @-@ Cambodian border , where it controlled thousands of civilians . At its peak , the armed branch of the KPNLF were estimated to have between 12 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 fighters , but a third of that number were lost through fighting and desertions during the Vietnamese dry season offensive of 1984 @-@ 85 . Nonetheless , the KPNLF continued to operate in small groups , harassing the Vietnamese and their Kampuchean allies using guerrilla tactics .
The other non @-@ communist organisation was the National United Front for an Independent , Peaceful , Neutral , and Cooperative Cambodia , formed by Sihanouk and known by its French acronym FUNCINPEC . The organization was formed after Sihanouk had severed ties with the Khmer Rouge following his representation on its behalf at the UN Security Council . As the leader of FUNCINPEC , Sihanouk called on the UN General Assembly to expel Khmer Rouge representatives for their crimes while in power and to keep Kampuchea ’ s seat at the UN vacant on the basis that neither the Khmer Rouge nor the Vietnamese @-@ installed PRK had the mandate to represent the Kampuchean people . He also criticised ASEAN for its continued recognition of the Khmer Rouge , and specifically Thailand for enabling Chinese arms shipments to travel through its territory to supply the notorious communist group . Despite the strength , effectiveness and popularity of the KPNLF and the FUNCINPEC , both resistance groups were plagued by internal divisions caused by the lack of unity , leadership struggles , corruption and alleged abuses of human rights .
In the early days of the Vietnamese occupation , the Kampuchean resistance groups had limited contact with each other due to their differences . Even though the Khmer Rouge enjoyed widespread international recognition , by 1980 the organization was under pressure to reform itself from the international community . ASEAN , which had backed the Khmer Rouge throughout their diplomatic confrontations with the PRK regime at the UN General Assembly in 1979 , urged the Khmer Rouge leadership to put its blood @-@ stained image behind it in order to join forces with other non @-@ communist movements . However , the idea of forming an alliance with the Khmer Rouge initially caused a certain degree of uneasiness within the leadership circles of the FUNCINPEC and the KPNLF , because both groups were leery about joining with a communist organization well known for its brutality . Nonetheless , early in 1981 , Sihanouk and Son Sann began engaging in talks with Khieu Samphan , President of the deposed Democratic Kampuchea , to discuss the prospect of forming an alliance .
In August 1981 , unity talks between the three organizations appeared to have collapsed as a result of conflicting interests . Sihanouk , who feared the resurgence of the Khmer Rouge , proposed that all resistance groups disarm themselves following the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops from Kampuchea . Meanwhile , Son Sann demanded that the KPNLF be the lead organization within the proposed alliance , and the leaders of the Khmer Rouge " most compromised " by the atrocities in Kampuchea be exiled to China . Against these preconditions , Khieu Samphan reminded his rivals that the autonomy of the Khmer Rouge and Democratic Kampuchea should not be undermined . On 22 November 1982 , Singapore , with the backing of ASEAN , proposed that three organizations form a coalition government with equal decision @-@ making powers within the alliance . Singapore ’ s proposal was welcomed by Sihanouk , who believed it was a fair deal for the non @-@ communist movements .
Khieu Samphan , on the other hand , rejected that idea , viewing it as an attempt by Sihanouk and Son Sann to isolate the Khmer Rouge . However , Sihanouk knew that Chinese support would not be made available to the FUNCINPEC unless he made some compromises and joined the Khmer Rouge on their terms . So , in February 1982 , Sihanouk met with Khieu Samphan in Beijing to work out their differences . In what he described as " another concession " , Khieu Samphan proposed forming a coalition government without integrating the other resistance groups into institutions associated with Democratic Kampuchea . However , he emphasized that all parties must defend the legal status of Democratic Kampuchea as the legitimate state representing Kampuchea on the world stage . In May 1982 , with the urging of Sihanouk , Son Sann decided to form a coalition government with the Khmer Rouge .
On 22 June 1982 , leaders of the three organizations formalized the formation of their coalition government by signing a Thai @-@ sponsored agreement which established the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea ( CGDK ) . Accordingly , the CGDK ’ s Inner Cabinet consisted of Sihanouk as the President of Democratic Kampuchea , Khieu Samphan as the Vice @-@ President in charge of foreign affairs and Son Sann as Prime Minister . Below the Inner Cabinet were six separate committees responsible for national defence , economy and finance , social affairs and public health , military affairs and the media . By 1987 , Democratic Kampuchea still held its membership at the UN General Assembly , even though it lacked four criteria of statehood : people , territory , government and supreme authority within the borders of a country . In spite of those limitations , forces of the three armed factions within the CGDK continued to fight the Vietnamese to achieve their objective of “ bring about the implementation of the International Conference on Cambodia and other relevant UN General Assembly resolutions ” .
= = = Vietnamese reform and withdrawal = = =
In 1978 , when Vietnamese leaders launched their invasion of Kampuchea to remove the Khmer Rouge regime , they did not expect a negative reaction from the international community . However , the events that followed the invasion showed that Vietnamese leaders had severely miscalculated international sympathies towards their cause . Instead of backing Vietnam , most United Nations member countries denounced the Vietnamese use of force against Kampuchea , and even moved to revive the battered Khmer Rouge organisation that had once governed the country with such brutality . Thus , more than just a military problem , Kampuchea quickly evolved into an economic and diplomatic problem for Vietnam on the international arena . Throughout the decade in which Vietnam occupied neighbouring Kampuchea , the Vietnamese Government , and the PRK regime which it installed , were placed on the periphery of the international community .
The international community ’ s political stance towards Kampuchea had a severe impact on the Vietnamese economy , which was already wrecked by decades of continuous conflicts . The United States , which already had sanctions in place against Vietnam , convinced other countries of the United Nations to deprive Vietnam and the People ’ s Republic of Kampuchea of much @-@ needed funds by denying them membership to major international organisations such as the World Bank , the Asian Development Bank and the International Monetary Fund . In 1979 Japan stepped up the pressure by suspending all economic aid to Vietnam , and warned Vietnamese leaders that economic aid would only resume when Vietnam amended its policies towards Kampuchea , the Sino @-@ Soviet rivalry and the problem of the boat people . Sweden , which was considered the staunchest supporter of Vietnam in the West , also considered reducing its commitments to the communist country as virtually every other country cancelled its aid .
In addition to external pressure , domestic policies implemented by the Vietnamese Government since 1975 had proven to be largely ineffective in stimulating the country ’ s economic growth . By building on the Soviet model of central economic planning , Vietnam placed most emphasis on the development of heavy industries , while production in agriculture and light manufacturing sectors stagnated . Furthermore , attempts to nationalise the economy of southern Vietnam after reunification only resulted in chaos , as economic output were driven down by dislocation of the general population . In addition to those failed economic policies , Vietnam maintained the fifth largest armed forces in the world , with 1 @.@ 26 million regular soldiers under arms , 180 @,@ 000 of whom were stationed in Cambodia in 1984 . Consequently , the Vietnamese Government had to spend one @-@ third of its budget on the military and the campaign in Kampuchea , despite receiving $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in military aid annually from the Soviet Union , thus further hampering Vietnam ’ s economic rebuilding efforts .
To avoid engaging in a debilitating conflict with various local armed resistance groups within the context of international pressure , Vietnam began withdrawing its military forces from Kampuchea as early as 1982 . But the withdrawal process lacked international verification , so foreign observers simply dismissed Vietnam ’ s movement of troops as mere rotations . In 1984 , in order to disengage from Kampuchea , Vietnam unveiled a five @-@ phase strategy known as the K5 Plan , which was authored by General Le Duc Anh , who had led the Vietnamese campaign in Kampuchea . The first phase required the Vietnamese military to capture the bases of armed groups in western Kampuchea and along the border with Thailand . The following phases included sealing off the border with Thailand , destroying local resistance groups , providing security for the population , and building @-@ up the Kampuchean People ’ s Revolutionary Armed Forces . Foreign observers believed that the Vietnamese Army completed the first phase of the K5 Plan during the dry season offensive of 1984 @-@ 85 , when the base camps of several anti @-@ Vietnamese resistance groups were overrun . Afterwards , the majority of ten Vietnamese divisions were assigned to operations on the frontiers , with the remainder staying in major provinces to protect the local population and to train the Kampuchean armed forces .
By 1985 , international isolation and economic hardships had forced Vietnam to rely more and more on the Soviet Union for help . During the Chinese invasion in February 1979 , the Soviet Union provided $ 1 @.@ 4 billion worth of military aid to Vietnam , a figure that peaked at $ 1 @.@ 7 billion in the period between 1981 and 1985 . Then , to help Vietnam implement its third Five Year Plan ( 1981 – 1985 ) , the Soviet Union provided a sum of $ 5 @.@ 4 billion to the Vietnamese Government for its expenditures ; economic aid ultimately reached $ 1 @.@ 8 billion annually . The Soviet Union also provided 90 percent of Vietnam ’ s demand for raw materials and 70 percent of its grain imports . Even though the figures suggest the Soviet Union was a reliable ally , privately Soviet leaders were dissatisfied with Hanoi 's handling of the stalemate in Kampuchea and resented the burden of their aid program to Vietnam as their own country was undergoing economic reforms . In 1986 , the Soviet Government announced that it would reduce aid to friendly nations ; for Vietnam , those reductions meant the loss of 20 percent of its economic aid and one @-@ third of its military aid .
To reengage with the international community , and to deal with the economic challenges brought by the changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe , Vietnamese leaders decided to embark on a series of reforms . At the 6th National Party Congress in December 1986 , newly appointed General Secretary of the VCP Nguyen Van Linh introduced a major reform known as Doi Moi , the Vietnamese term for " renovation " , in order to fix Vietnam ’ s economic problems . However , Vietnamese leaders concluded that Vietnam ’ s dire economic situation came as a result of the international isolation which followed its invasion of Kampuchea in 1978 , and that for Doi Moi to be successful it needed radical changes in defence and foreign policy . Subsequently , in June 1987 , the Vietnamese Politburo adopted a new defence strategy in Resolution No. 2 , calling for the complete withdrawal of Vietnamese soldiers from international duties , a reduction in the size of the army through a discharge of 600 @,@ 000 soldiers and the establishment of a set ratio for military expenditures .
Then , on 13 May 1988 , the Vietnamese Politburo adopted Resolution No.13 on foreign policy , which aimed to achieve diversification and multilateralisation of Vietnam 's foreign relations . Its main objectives were to end the embargoes imposed by UN members , integrate Vietnam with the regional and international community and ultimately attract foreign investment and development aid . As part of this change , Vietnam ceased to regard the United States as a long @-@ term foe and China as an imminent and dangerous enemy . In addition , official Vietnamese propaganda stopped labelling ASEAN as a " NATO @-@ type " organisation . To implement the new reforms , Vietnam , with support from the Soviet Union , started transferring several years ' worth of military equipment to the KPRAF , which numbered more than 70 @,@ 000 soldiers . The Vietnamese Ministry of Defense ’ s International Relations Department then advised its Kampuchean counterparts to only use the available equipment to maintain their current level of operations , and not to engage in major operations which could exhaust those supplies .
In 1988 , Vietnam was estimated to have about 100 @,@ 000 troops in Kampuchea , but , sensing that a diplomatic settlement was within reach , the Vietnamese Government began withdrawing forces in earnest . Between April and July 1989 , 24 @,@ 000 Vietnamese soldiers returned home . Then , between 21 and 26 September 1989 , after suffering 15 @,@ 000 soldiers killed and another 30 @,@ 000 wounded during the 10 @-@ year occupation , Vietnam ’ s commitment to Kampuchea was officially over , when the remaining 26 @,@ 000 Vietnamese soldiers were pulled out . However , armed resistance groups opposed to the Vietnamese @-@ installed PRK regime claimed that Vietnamese troops were still operating on Kampuchean soil long after September 1989 . For example , non @-@ communist groups engaging in land @-@ grab operations in western Kampuchea after the withdrawal reported clashes with elite Vietnamese Special Forces near Tamar Puok along Route 69 . Then , in March 1991 , Vietnamese units were reported to have re @-@ entered Kampot Province to defeat a Khmer Rouge offensive . Despite such claims , on 23 October 1991 , the Vietnamese Government signed the Paris Peace Agreement , which aimed to restore peace in Kampuchea .
= = = FULRO insurgency against Vietnam = = =
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Paris Peace Agreement = = =
On 14 January 1985 , Hun Sen was appointed Prime Minister of the People 's Republic of Kampuchea and began peace talks with the factions of the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea . Between 2 – 4 December 1987 , Hun Sen met with Sihanouk at Fère @-@ en @-@ Tardenois in France to discuss the future of Kampuchea . Further talks occurred between 20 – 21 January 1988 , and Hun Sen offered Sihanouk a position within the Kampuchean Government on the condition that he returned to Kampuchea straightaway . However , Sihanouk did not accept the offer , even as preparations were made in Phnom Penh to receive him . Despite that failure , Hun Sen ’ s Kampuchean Government was able to persuade Cheng Heng and In Tam , both ministers in Lon Nol ’ s regime , to return to Kampuchea . In the first major step towards restoring peace in Kampuchea , representatives of the CGDK and the PRK met for the first time at the First Jakarta Informal Meeting on 25 July 1988 . In that meeting , Sihanouk proposed a three @-@ stage plan , which called for a cease @-@ fire , a UN peacekeeping force to supervise the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops and the integration of all Kampuchean armed factions into a single army .
Vietnamese Foreign Minister Nguyen Co Thach urged all parties involved to separate Kampuchean problems into internal and external aspects . Therefore , to begin the process of restoring peace , the Vietnamese delegation proposed a two @-@ stage plan that began with internal discussions among the Kampuchean factions , followed by a roundtable discussion with all involved countries . The Vietnamese proposal won out at the meeting , but no agreements were reached . At the Second Jakarta Meeting , on 19 February 1989 , Australian Foreign Minister Gareth Evans forwarded the Cambodian Peace Plan to bring about a ceasefire , a peacekeeping force and the establishment of a national unity government to maintain Kampuchea ’ s sovereignty until elections were held . To facilitate a peace agreement on the eve of the Vietnamese withdrawal , between 29 – 30 April 1989 , Hun Sen convened a meeting of the National Assembly to adopt a new constitution , and the country was renamed the State of Cambodia to reflect the state of ambiguity of the country ’ s sovereignty . Furthermore , Buddhism was re @-@ established as the state religion , and citizens were guaranteed the right to hold private property .
In the meantime , however , peace talks between the warring factions continued , with the First Paris Peace Conference on Cambodia held in Paris in 1989 . On 26 February 1990 , following the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops , the Third Jakarta Informal Meeting was held , at which the Supreme National Council was established to safeguard Cambodian sovereignty . Initially , the Supreme National Council was to have 12 members , with three seats allocated to each faction of the CGDK , and three to the pro @-@ Vietnam Kampuchean People ’ s Revolutionary Party . However , Hun Sen objected to the proposed arrangement , calling instead for each faction of the CGDK to be given two seats for a total of six , and the Kampuchean People ’ s Revolutionary Party to have six seats . In 1991 the Supreme National Council began representing Cambodia at the UN General Assembly . Then , in a bold move , Hun Sen renamed the Kampuchean People 's Revolutionary Party to the Cambodian People 's Party in an effort to portray his party as a democratic institution and renounce its revolutionary struggle .
On 23 October 1991 , the Cambodian factions of the Supreme National Council , along with Vietnam and 15 member nations of the International Peace Conference on Cambodia , signed the Paris Peace Agreement . For the Cambodian people , two decades of continuous warfare and 13 years of civil war seemed to be over , although an atmosphere of uneasiness amongst the leaders of the Cambodian factions remained . In order to include the Khmer Rouge in the agreement , the major powers agreed to avoid using the word " genocide " to describe the actions of the Government of Democratic Kampuchea in the period between 1975 and 1979 . As a result , Hun Sen criticised the Paris Agreement as being far from perfect , as it failed to remind the Cambodian people of the atrocities committed by the Khmer Rouge regime . Nonetheless , the Paris Agreement established the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia ( UNTAC ) , in accordance with the UN Security Council ’ s Resolution 745 , and gave UNTAC a broad mandate to supervise main policies and administration works until a Cambodian government was democratically elected .
On 14 November 1991 , Sihanouk returned to Cambodia to participate in the elections , followed by Son Senn , a Khmer Rouge official , who arrived a few days later to set up the organisation 's electoral campaign office in Phnom Penh . On 27 November 1991 , Khieu Samphan also returned to Cambodia on a flight from Bangkok ; initially he had expected his arrival to be uneventful , but as soon as Khieu Samphan 's flight landed at Pochentong Airport , he was met by an angry crowd which shouted insults and abuses at him . As Khieu Samphan was driven into the city , another crowd lined the route towards his office and threw objects at his car . As soon as he arrived at his office , Khieu Samphan entered and immediately telephoned the Chinese Government to save him . Shortly afterwards , an angry mob forced its way into the building , chased Khieu Samphan up the second floor and tried to hang him from a ceiling fan . Eventually , Khieu Samphan was able to escape from the building by a ladder with his face bloodied , and was immediately taken to Pochentong Airport , where he flew out of Cambodia . Thus , with the departure of Khieu Samphan , the Khmer Rouge ’ s participation in the election seemed doubtful .
In March 1992 , the start of the UNTAC mission in Cambodia was marked by the arrival of 22 @,@ 000 UN peacekeepers , which included troops from 22 countries , 6 @,@ 000 officials , 3 @,@ 500 police and 1 @,@ 700 civilian employees and electoral volunteers . The mission was led by Yasushi Akashi . In June 1992 , the Khmer Rouge formally established the National Union Party of Kampuchea , and announced that it would not register to participate in the upcoming elections . Furthermore , the Khmer Rouge also refused to disarm its forces in accordance with the Paris agreement . Then , to prevent ethnic Vietnamese from taking part in the elections , the Khmer Rouge started massacring Vietnamese civilian communities , causing hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese to flee Cambodia . Towards the end of 1992 , Khmer Rouge forces advanced into Kampong Thom in order to gain a strategic foothold , before UN peacekeeping forces were fully deployed there . In the months leading up to the elections , several UN military patrols were attacked as they entered Khmer Rouge @-@ held territory .
Despite ongoing threats from the Khmer Rouge during the elections , on 28 May 1993 , FUNCINPEC won 45 @.@ 47 percent of the vote , against 38 @.@ 23 percent for the Cambodian People ’ s Party . Though clearly defeated , Hun Sen refused to accept the results of the election , so his Defense Minister , Sin Song , announced the secession of the eastern provinces of Cambodia , which had supported the Cambodian People ’ s Party . Prince Norodom Ranariddh , leader of FUNCINPEC and son of Sihanouk , agreed to form a coalition government with the Cambodian People ’ s Party so the country would not break up . On 21 September 1993 , the Cambodian Constituent Assembly approved a new Constitution and Ranariddh became First Prime Minister , and he appointed Hun Sen as the Second Prime Minister . On 23 September 1993 , the constitutional monarchy was restored with Norodom Sihanouk as the head of state . In July 1994 , the Cambodian Government outlawed the Khmer Rouge for its continuous violations of the Paris Agreement . Most significantly , the Cambodian Government also specifically recognised the genocide and atrocities which occurred under Democratic Kampuchea . By 1998 , the Khmer Rouge was completely dissolved .
= = = Vietnam rejoins the world = = =
The military occupation of Kampuchea had profound consequences for Vietnamese foreign policy . Since gaining independence in 1954 , the Vietnamese communist perspective on foreign policy had been dominated by the need to maintain a world order of two camps , communist and non @-@ communist . Indeed , the treaties of friendship that Vietnam signed with the Soviet Union , Laos and the People ’ s Republic of Kampuchea were consistent with that view . However , the ideological motivations of the Vietnamese communist leadership were proven to be limited and heavily flawed , as demonstrated by the 1979 condemnation of Vietnam after ousting the Khmer Rouge regime . In the years that followed , the Vietnamese Government was left isolated from the world and its efforts to rebuild the country were handicapped by the lack of aid from the capitalist Western nations . Furthermore , the presence of Vietnamese military forces in Cambodia became an obstacle which prevented the normalisation of diplomatic ties with China , the United States and the member nations of ASEAN .
In light of the decline experienced by the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe , the Vietnamese Government began repairing diplomatic relations with neighbouring countries as part of a greater effort to rejuvenate Vietnam 's shattered economy . Since its invasion in 1979 , China had placed sustained pressure on the northern borders of Vietnam , with the province of Ha Tuyen regularly shelled by Chinese artillery . In September 1985 , Chinese bombardment of Ha Tuyen reached a peak when 2 @,@ 000 rounds were fired . To reduce the state of hostility along the border region , and ultimately normalise relations with China , the Vietnamese Government dropped all hostile references to China at the 6th National Party Congress in December 1986 , and also adopted the Doi Moi policy . In August 1990 , as the Cambodian Peace Plan , authored by Australian Foreign Minister Gareth Evans , was being endorsed by the UN Security Council , both China and Vietnam moved towards accommodation .
Early in September 1990 , Vietnamese Prime Minister Đỗ Mười , General Secretary Nguyen Van Linh and former Prime Minister Pham Van Dong travelled to Chengdu , China , where they held a secret meeting with Chinese Prime Minister Li Peng and General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Jiang Zemin . On 17 September 1990 , General Võ Nguyên Giáp also made a trip to China and thanked the Chinese Government for its past assistance . Despite outward signs of improvement in Vietnam 's diplomatic relations with China , Vietnamese leaders were reluctant to endorse any peace plan which could weaken their client regime in Phnom Penh . However , as the four Cambodian factions reached an agreement on the power @-@ sharing arrangement outlined at the Third Jakarta Informal Meeting in February 1990 , Vietnam and China rapidly moved to re @-@ establish formal diplomatic relations . In November 1991 , newly elected Vietnamese Prime Minister Võ Văn Kiệt travelled to Beijing and met his Chinese counterpart , Li Peng , and they issued an 11 @-@ point communiqué re @-@ establishing diplomatic ties between the two countries after 10 years without formal relations .
The end of the Cambodian conflict also brought an end the ASEAN @-@ imposed trade and aid embargo which had been in place since 1979 . In January 1990 , Thai Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan publicly voiced his support for Vietnam , and the rest of Indochina , to gain admission into ASEAN . In the period between late 1991 and early 1992 , Vietnam restored relations with several member nations of ASEAN . As a result , between 1991 and 1994 , investments from ASEAN countries made up 15 percent of direct foreign investment in Vietnam . Aside from the obvious economic benefits , ASEAN also provided a peaceful environment that guaranteed Vietnam 's national security against foreign threats in the post @-@ Cold War era , when Soviet aid was no longer available . Thus , on 28 July 1995 , Vietnam officially became the seventh member of ASEAN , after leading ASEAN officials invited Vietnam to join at the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting in Bangkok in 1994 . Then , in August 1995 , the U.S. Liaison Office in Hanoi was upgraded to Embassy status , after U.S. President Bill Clinton announced a formal normalisation of diplomatic relations with Vietnam on 11 July 1995 , thereby ending Vietnam ’ s isolation from the United States .
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= Lana Del Rey ( EP ) =
Lana Del Rey is the second EP by American singer and songwriter Lana Del Rey . It was released on January 10 , 2012 in the United States and Canada through Interscope Records . After publishing two unsuccessful works , her first EP , Kill Kill ; and her first studio album , Lana Del Ray , the four @-@ track EP was released in anticipation of Del Rey 's major label debut Born to Die ( 2012 ) . The tracks are influenced by several genres , including indie pop , hip hop , and alternative music . The lyrics and melody were written primarily by Del Rey , Patrik Berger , and Justin Parker . Production of the album was led by Emile Haynie , who also co @-@ wrote " Blue Jeans " .
Contemporary critics gave mixed reviews of the EP . Music videos accompanied each single , which were produced by Del Rey herself and uploaded to YouTube . Although the video for " Video Games " that Del Rey filmed with her webcam was not intended as a single at the time , it garnered enough online buzz to be noticed by Stranger Records , opening the opportunity for Del Rey to sign a joint record deal with Interscope and Polydor , leading to the eventual publication of the EP and additional videos for " Blue Jeans " and " Born to Die " .
Selling over 24 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , the EP peaked at number twenty on the Billboard 200 , peaking at six on the Rock Albums chart and six on the Alternative Albums chart . All four songs were released as singles on Born to Die , with three charting internationally .
= = Background = =
Del Rey was born in New York City , New York in 1985 and was raised in Lake Placid , a quiet village outside of New York . At age fifteen , she was sent to boarding school in Connecticut , before moving to New York City at eighteen to study metaphysics at Fordham University . While attending the university , according to Del Rey , her musical experience began here , discovering the right acquaintances on her own . After her uncle taught her how to play guitar , she realized that she could probably write " a million " songs with only those six chords . She then began performing in clubs in New York City , using various stage names such as Sparkle Rope Jump Queen and Lizzy Grant and the Phenomena . Recalling the experience , Del Rey said , " I was always singing , but didn 't plan on pursuing it seriously . When I got to New York City when I was 18 , I started playing in clubs in Brooklyn – I have good friends and devoted fans on the underground scene , but we were playing for each other at that point – and that was it " .
At age twenty , Del Rey signed a USD $ 10 @,@ 000 recording contract and moved to a trailer park in New Jersey . The album that she recorded was later shelved , catalyzing her to pivot her focus . Instead , she began work in community service , and for the next five years , worked at homeless outreach , drug , and alcohol rehabilitation centers . She was quoted in an interview as saying , " The only passionate people I met in New York , were social workers . " A few years later , Del Rey signed to 5 Point Records , an independent record label owned by David Kahne . With the label , she released the three @-@ track EP , Kill Kill , in October 2008 and a full @-@ length studio album Lana Del Ray in 2010 . After hearing Del Rey 's demo , Kahne contacted her ; she obliged , knowing his reputation as a producer and his wish to produce music other than pop . Del Rey also explained why she then changed her stage name from Lizzy Grant to Lana Del Rey : " I wanted a name I could shape the music towards . I was going to Miami quite a lot at the time , speaking a lot of Spanish with my friends from Cuba – Lana Del Rey reminded us of the glamour of the seaside . It sounded gorgeous coming off the tip of the tongue " .
After uploading a few of her tracks to her YouTube channel , Del Rey was discovered and got signed by Stranger Records to release her debut single " Video Games " . She told The Observer that " Video Games " was never intended to be a single , but she enjoyed the video and uploaded on the internet . The song earned her a Q Award for " Next Big Thing " in October 2011 . Later that month , she signed a joint record deal with Interscope Records and Polydor to release her second studio album , Born to Die . Del Rey built anticipation to the album by doing a number of live appearances , such as promotional concerts at the Bowery Ballroom and at the Chateau Marmont , and with performances at television shows such as De Wereld Draait Door , and Later ... with Jools Holland . To further promote the upcoming release of Born to Die , Interscope Records released the EP in the United States and Canada on January 10 , 2012 . The four tracks that appear on the EP ( " Video Games " , " Born to Die " , " Blue Jeans " , and " Off to the Races " ) were previously available for purchase as singles in international markets .
= = Composition = =
Del Rey stated the use of her lower vocals on the tracks claiming that " people weren 't taking me very seriously , so I lowered my voice , believing that it would help me stand out . Now I sing quite low ... well , for a female anyway . " The singer 's first singles , " Video Games " and " Born to Die " were described variously as " quasi @-@ cabaret balladry " , " woozy and sometimes soporific soundtrack soul " , " pop " , and " indie pop " .
Her own description of her music is " Hollywood sadcore " . In her own words , Del Rey described most of her songs being like " a dark love story seen through hopeful eyes . " Tim Lee of musicOMH noted the songs are extremely similar , commenting that " her ( alleged ) agents clearly having stumbled upon a formula with which they can ( allegedly ) print money and ( allegedly ) further consign Lana 's secretive , ( allegedly ) real debut LP to the annals of history . You didn 't hear it from us , right ? " Del Rey has once described herself as a " gangsta Nancy Sinatra " , though she cites Britney Spears , Elvis Presley , and Kurt Cobain as her musical influences .
The third track , " Blue Jeans " , was influenced by hip hop and has a minimalist beat that recalls songs by Timbaland . Del Rey also raps in a few verses of the song such as " You ’ re so fresh to death and sick as cancer [ ... ] Love you more than those bitches before " . " Off to the Races " has been lyrically described as " a freak show of inappropriate co @-@ dependency " , with a chorus that recalls Sheryl Crow 's " down and out drunken loner persona " in her 1994 single " Leaving Las Vegas " . Pryia Elan of NME noted the track " almost falls under the weight of this persona . There 's none of ' Video Games ' ' measured , piano @-@ led reflection . Instead the psychosexual rumblings of the lyrics and the dual voices she uses off set the comparatively simple musical shades on display . "
= = Response = =
John Bush of Allmusic considered the singer a femme fatale " with a smoky voice , a languorous image , and a modeling contract " . However , Bush rated the EP 2 @.@ 5 stars out of five , considering it only " as a teaser from the album " . The EP entered the Billboard 200 on the chart issue of January 21 , 2012 at number 20 , after selling 14 @,@ 000 digital copies . As of February 1 , 2012 , it has sold 24 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Watson ( computer ) =
Watson is a question answering computer system capable of answering questions posed in natural language , developed in IBM 's DeepQA project by a research team led by principal investigator David Ferrucci . Watson was named after IBM 's first CEO and industrialist Thomas J. Watson . The computer system was specifically developed to answer questions on the quiz show Jeopardy ! . In 2011 , Watson competed on Jeopardy ! against former winners Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings . Watson received the first place prize of $ 1 million .
Watson had access to 200 million pages of structured and unstructured content consuming four terabytes of disk storage including the full text of Wikipedia , but was not connected to the Internet during the game . For each clue , Watson 's three most probable responses were displayed on the television screen . Watson consistently outperformed its human opponents on the game 's signaling device , but had trouble in a few categories , notably those having short clues containing only a few words .
In February 2013 , IBM announced that Watson software system 's first commercial application would be for utilization management decisions in lung cancer treatment at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in conjunction with health insurance company WellPoint . IBM Watson 's former business chief Manoj Saxena says that 90 % of nurses in the field who use Watson now follow its guidance .
= = Description = =
Watson is a question answering ( QA ) computing system that IBM built to apply advanced natural language processing , information retrieval , knowledge representation , automated reasoning , and machine learning technologies to the field of open domain question answering .
The key difference between QA technology and document search is that document search takes a keyword query and returns a list of documents , ranked in order of relevance to the query ( often based on popularity and page ranking ) , while QA technology takes a question expressed in natural language , seeks to understand it in much greater detail , and returns a precise answer to the question .
According to IBM , " more than 100 different techniques are used to analyze natural language , identify sources , find and generate hypotheses , find and score evidence , and merge and rank hypotheses . "
= = = Software = = =
Watson uses IBM 's DeepQA software and the Apache UIMA ( Unstructured Information Management Architecture ) framework . The system was written in various languages , including Java , C + + , and Prolog , and runs on the SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 11 operating system using Apache Hadoop framework to provide distributed computing .
= = = Hardware = = =
The system is workload @-@ optimized , integrating massively parallel POWER7 processors and built on IBM 's DeepQA technology , which it uses to generate hypotheses , gather massive evidence , and analyze data . Watson employs a cluster of ninety IBM Power 750 servers , each of which uses a 3 @.@ 5 GHz POWER7 eight core processor , with four threads per core . In total , the system has 2 @,@ 880 POWER7 processor threads and 16 terabytes of RAM .
According to John Rennie , Watson can process 500 gigabytes , the equivalent of a million books , per second . IBM 's master inventor and senior consultant Tony Pearson estimated Watson 's hardware cost at about three million dollars . Its Linpack performance stands at 80 TeraFLOPs , which is about half as fast as the cut @-@ off line for the Top 500 Supercomputers list . According to Rennie , all content was stored in Watson 's RAM for the Jeopardy game because data stored on hard drives would be too slow to be competitive with human Jeopardy champions .
= = = Data = = =
The sources of information for Watson include encyclopedias , dictionaries , thesauri , newswire articles , and literary works . Watson also used databases , taxonomies , and ontologies . Specifically , DBPedia , WordNet , and Yago were used . The IBM team provided Watson with millions of documents , including dictionaries , encyclopedias , and other reference material that it could use to build its knowledge .
= = Operation = =
Watson parses questions into different keywords and sentence fragments in order to find statistically related phrases . Watson 's main innovation was not in the creation of a new algorithm for this operation but rather its ability to quickly execute hundreds of proven language analysis algorithms simultaneously to find the correct answer . The more algorithms that find the same answer independently the more likely Watson is to be correct . Once Watson has a small number of potential solutions , it is able to check against its database to ascertain whether the solution makes sense .
= = = Comparison with human players = = =
Watson 's basic working principle is to parse keywords in a clue while searching for related terms as responses . This gives Watson some advantages and disadvantages compared with human Jeopardy ! players . Watson has deficiencies in understanding the contexts of the clues . As a result , human players usually generate responses faster than Watson , especially to short clues . Watson 's programming prevents it from using the popular tactic of buzzing before it is sure of its response . Watson has consistently better reaction time on the buzzer once it has generated a response , and is immune to human players ' psychological tactics , such as jumping between categories on every clue .
In a sequence of 20 mock games of Jeopardy , human participants were able to use the average six to seven seconds that Watson needed to hear the clue and decide whether to signal for responding . During that time , Watson also has to evaluate the response and determine whether it is sufficiently confident in the result to signal . Part of the system used to win the Jeopardy ! contest was the electronic circuitry that receives the " ready " signal and then examined whether Watson 's confidence level was great enough to activate the buzzer . Given the speed of this circuitry compared to the speed of human reaction times , Watson 's reaction time was faster than the human contestants except when the human anticipated ( instead of reacted to ) the ready signal . After signaling , Watson speaks with an electronic voice and gives the responses in Jeopardy ! ' s question format . Watson 's voice was synthesized from recordings that actor Jeff Woodman made for an IBM text @-@ to @-@ speech program in 2004 .
The Jeopardy ! staff used different means to notify Watson and the human players when to buzz , which was critical in many rounds . The humans were notified by a light , which took them tenths of a second to perceive . Watson was notified by an electronic signal and could activate the buzzer within about eight milliseconds . The humans tried to compensate for the perception delay by anticipating the light , but the variation in the anticipation time was generally too great to fall within Watson 's response time . Watson did not attempt to anticipate the notification signal .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Since Deep Blue 's victory over Garry Kasparov in chess in 1997 , IBM had been on the hunt for a new challenge . In 2004 , IBM Research manager Charles Lickel , over dinner with coworkers , noticed that the restaurant they were in had fallen silent . He soon discovered the cause of this evening hiatus : Ken Jennings , who was then in the middle of his successful 74 @-@ game run on Jeopardy ! . Nearly the entire restaurant had piled toward the televisions , mid @-@ meal , to watch the phenomenon . Intrigued by the quiz show as a possible challenge for IBM , Lickel passed the idea on , and in 2005 , IBM Research executive Paul Horn backed Lickel up , pushing for someone in his department to take up the challenge of playing Jeopardy ! with an IBM system . Though he initially had trouble finding any research staff willing to take on what looked to be a much more complex challenge than the wordless game of chess , eventually David Ferrucci took him up on the offer . In competitions managed by the United States government , Watson 's predecessor , a system named Piquant , was usually able to respond correctly to only about 35 % of clues and often required several minutes to respond . To compete successfully on Jeopardy ! , Watson would need to respond in no more than a few seconds , and at that time , the problems posed by the game show were deemed to be impossible to solve .
In initial tests run during 2006 by David Ferrucci , the senior manager of IBM 's Semantic Analysis and Integration department , Watson was given 500 clues from past Jeopardy ! programs . While the best real @-@ life competitors buzzed in half the time and responded correctly to as many as 95 % of clues , Watson 's first pass could get only about 15 % correct . During 2007 , the IBM team was given three to five years and a staff of 15 people to solve the problems . By 2008 , the developers had advanced Watson such that it could compete with Jeopardy ! champions . By February 2010 , Watson could beat human Jeopardy ! contestants on a regular basis .
Although the system is primarily an IBM effort , Watson 's development involved faculty and graduate students from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute , Carnegie Mellon University , University of Massachusetts Amherst , the University of Southern California 's Information Sciences Institute , the University of Texas at Austin , the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , and the University of Trento , as well as students from New York Medical College .
= = = Jeopardy ! = = =
= = = = Preparation = = = =
In 2008 , IBM representatives communicated with Jeopardy ! executive producer Harry Friedman about the possibility of having Watson compete against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter , two of the most successful contestants on the show , and the program 's producers agreed . Watson 's differences with human players had generated conflicts between IBM and Jeopardy ! staff during the planning of the competition . IBM repeatedly expressed concerns that the show 's writers would exploit Watson 's cognitive deficiencies when writing the clues , thereby turning the game into a Turing test . To alleviate that claim , a third party randomly picked the clues from previously written shows that were never broadcast . Jeopardy ! staff also showed concerns over Watson 's reaction time on the buzzer . Originally Watson signaled electronically , but show staff requested that it press a button physically , as the human contestants would . Even with a robotic " finger " pressing the buzzer , Watson remained faster than its human competitors . Ken Jennings noted , " If you 're trying to win on the show , the buzzer is all , " and that Watson " can knock out a microsecond @-@ precise buzz every single time with little or no variation . Human reflexes can 't compete with computer circuits in this regard . " Stephen Baker , a journalist who recorded Watson 's development in his book " Final Jeopardy " , reported that the conflict between IBM and Jeopardy ! became so serious in May 2010 that the competition was almost canceled . As part of the preparation , IBM constructed a mock set in a conference room at one of its technology sites to model the one used on Jeopardy ! . Human players , including former Jeopardy ! contestants , also participated in mock games against Watson with Todd Alan Crain of The Onion playing host . About 100 test matches were conducted with Watson winning 65 % of the games .
To provide a physical presence in the televised games , Watson was represented by an " avatar " of a globe , inspired by the IBM " smarter planet " symbol . Jennings described the computer 's avatar as a " glowing blue ball criss @-@ crossed by ' threads ' of thought — 42 threads , to be precise , " and stated that the number of thought threads in the avatar was an in @-@ joke referencing the significance of the number 42 in Douglas Adams ' Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy . Joshua Davis , the artist who designed the avatar for the project , explained to Stephen Baker that there are 36 triggerable states that Watson was able to use throughout the game to show its confidence in responding to a clue correctly ; he had hoped to be able to find forty @-@ two , to add another level to the Hitchhiker 's Guide reference , but he was unable to pinpoint enough game states .
A practice match was recorded on January 13 , 2011 , and the official matches were recorded on January 14 , 2011 . All participants maintained secrecy about the outcome until the match was broadcast in February .
= = = = Practice match = = = =
In a practice match before the press on January 13 , 2011 , Watson won a 15 @-@ question round against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter with a score of $ 4 @,@ 400 to Jennings 's $ 3 @,@ 400 and Rutter 's $ 1 @,@ 200 , though Jennings and Watson were tied before the final $ 1 @,@ 000 question . None of the three players responded incorrectly to a clue .
= = = = First match = = = =
The first round was broadcast February 14 , 2011 , and the second round , on February 15 , 2011 . The right to choose the first category had been determined by a draw won by Rutter . Watson , represented by a computer monitor display and artificial voice , responded correctly to the second clue and then selected the fourth clue of the first category , a deliberate strategy to find the Daily Double as quickly as possible . Watson 's guess at the Daily Double location was correct . At the end of the first round , Watson was tied with Rutter at $ 5 @,@ 000 ; Jennings had $ 2 @,@ 000 .
Watson 's performance was characterized by some quirks . In one instance , Watson repeated a reworded version of an incorrect response offered by Jennings . ( Jennings said " What are the ' 20s ? " in reference to the 1920s . Then Watson said " What is 1920s ? " ) Because Watson could not recognize other contestants ' responses , it did not know that Jennings had already given the same response . In another instance , Watson was initially given credit for a response of " What is leg ? " after Jennings incorrectly responded " What is : he only had one hand ? " to a clue about George Eyser ( The correct response was , " What is : he 's missing a leg ? " ) . Because Watson , unlike a human , could not have been responding to Jennings 's mistake , it was decided that this response was incorrect . The broadcast version of the episode was edited to omit Trebek 's original acceptance of Watson 's response . Watson also demonstrated complex wagering strategies on the Daily Doubles , with one bet at $ 6 @,@ 435 and another at $ 1 @,@ 246 . Gerald Tesauro , one of the IBM researchers who worked on Watson , explained that Watson 's wagers were based on its confidence level for the category and a complex regression model called the Game State Evaluator .
Watson took a commanding lead in Double Jeopardy ! , correctly responding to both Daily Doubles . Watson responded to the second Daily Double correctly with a 32 % confidence score .
Although it wagered only $ 947 on the clue , Watson was the only contestant to miss the Final Jeopardy ! response in the category U.S. CITIES ( " Its largest airport was named for a World War II hero ; its second largest , for a World War II battle " ) . Rutter and Jennings gave the correct response of Chicago , but Watson 's response was " What is Toronto ? ? ? ? ? " Ferrucci offered reasons why Watson would appear to have guessed a Canadian city : categories only weakly suggest the type of response desired , the phrase " U.S. city " didn 't appear in the question , there are cities named Toronto in the U.S. , and Toronto in Ontario has an American League baseball team . Dr. Chris Welty , who also worked on Watson , suggested that it may not have been able to correctly parse the second part of the clue , " its second largest , for a World War II battle " ( which was not a standalone clause despite it following a semicolon , and required context to understand that it was referring to a second @-@ largest airport ) . Eric Nyberg , a professor at Carnegie Mellon University and a member of the development team , stated that the error occurred because Watson does not possess the comparative knowledge to discard that potential response as not viable . Although not displayed to the audience as with non @-@ Final Jeopardy ! questions , Watson 's second choice was Chicago . Both Toronto and Chicago were well below Watson 's confidence threshold , at 14 % and 11 % respectively . ( This lack of confidence was the reason for the multiple question marks in Watson 's response . )
The game ended with Jennings with $ 4 @,@ 800 , Rutter with $ 10 @,@ 400 , and Watson with $ 35 @,@ 734 .
= = = = Second match = = = =
During the introduction , Trebek ( a Canadian native ) joked that he had learned Toronto was a U.S. city , and Watson 's error in the first match prompted an IBM engineer to wear a Toronto Blue Jays jacket to the recording of the second match .
In the first round , Jennings was finally able to choose a Daily Double clue , while Watson responded to one Daily Double clue incorrectly for the first time in the Double Jeopardy ! Round . After the first round , Watson placed second for the first time in the competition after Rutter and Jennings were briefly successful in increasing their dollar values before Watson could respond . Nonetheless , the final result ended with a victory for Watson with a score of $ 77 @,@ 147 , besting Jennings who scored $ 24 @,@ 000 and Rutter who scored $ 21 @,@ 600 .
= = = = Final outcome = = = =
The prizes for the competition were $ 1 million for first place ( Watson ) , $ 300 @,@ 000 for second place ( Jennings ) , and $ 200 @,@ 000 for third place ( Rutter ) . As promised , IBM donated 100 % of Watson 's winnings to charity , with 50 % of those winnings going to World Vision and 50 % going to World Community Grid . Similarly , Jennings and Rutter donated 50 % of their winnings to their respective charities .
In acknowledgment of IBM and Watson 's achievements , Jennings made an additional remark in his Final Jeopardy ! response : " I for one welcome our new computer overlords " , echoing a similar memetic reference to the episode " Deep Space Homer " on The Simpsons , in which TV news presenter Kent Brockman speaks of welcoming " our new insect overlords " . Jennings later wrote an article for Slate , in which he stated " IBM has bragged to the media that Watson 's question @-@ answering skills are good for more than annoying Alex Trebek . The company sees a future in which fields like medical diagnosis , business analytics , and tech support are automated by question @-@ answering software like Watson . Just as factory jobs were eliminated in the 20th century by new assembly @-@ line robots , Brad and I were the first knowledge @-@ industry workers put out of work by the new generation of ' thinking ' machines . ' Quiz show contestant ' may be the first job made redundant by Watson , but I 'm sure it won 't be the last . "
= = = = Philosophy = = = =
Philosopher John Searle argues that Watson — despite impressive capabilities — cannot actually think . Drawing on his Chinese room thought experiment , Searle claims that Watson , like other computational machines , is capable only of manipulating symbols , but has no ability to understand the meaning of those symbols ; however , Searle 's experiment has its detractors .
= = = = Match against members of the United States Congress = = = =
On February 28 , 2011 , Watson played an untelevised exhibition match of Jeopardy ! against members of the United States House of Representatives . In the first round , Rush D. Holt , Jr . ( D @-@ NJ , a former Jeopardy ! contestant ) , who was challenging the computer with Bill Cassidy ( R @-@ LA ) , led with Watson in second place . However , combining the scores between all matches , the final score was $ 40 @,@ 300 for Watson and $ 30 @,@ 000 for the congressional players combined .
IBM 's Christopher Padilla said of the match , " The technology behind Watson represents a major advancement in computing . In the data @-@ intensive environment of government , this type of technology can help organizations make better decisions and improve how government helps its citizens . "
= = Current and future applications = =
According to IBM , " The goal is to have computers start to interact in natural human terms across a range of applications and processes , understanding the questions that humans ask and providing answers that humans can understand and justify . " It has been suggested by Robert C. Weber , IBM 's general counsel , that Watson may be used for legal research . The company also intends to use Watson in other information @-@ intensive fields , such as telecommunications , financial services , and government .
Watson is based on commercially available IBM Power 750 servers that have been marketed since February 2010 . IBM also intends to market the DeepQA software to large corporations , with a price in the millions of dollars , reflecting the $ 1 million needed to acquire a server that meets the minimum system requirement to operate Watson . IBM expects the price to decrease substantially within a decade as the technology improves .
Commentator Rick Merritt said that " there 's another really important reason why it is strategic for IBM to be seen very broadly by the American public as a company that can tackle tough computer problems . A big slice of [ IBM 's profit ] comes from selling to the U.S. government some of the biggest , most expensive systems in the world . "
In 2013 , it was reported that three companies were working with IBM to create apps embedded with Watson technology . Fluid is developing an app for retailers , one called " The North Face " , which is designed to provide advice to online shoppers . Welltok is developing an app designed to give people advice on ways to engage in activities to improve their health . MD Buyline is developing an app for the purpose of advising medical institutions on equipment procurement decisions .
In November , 2013 , IBM announced it would make Watson 's API available to software application providers , enabling them to build apps and services that are embedded with Watson 's capabilities . To build out its base of partners who create applications on the Watson platform , IBM consults with a network of venture capital firms , which advise IBM on which of their portfolio companies may be a logical fit for what IBM calls the Watson Ecosystem . Thus far , roughly 800 organizations and individuals have signed up with IBM , with interest in creating applications that could use the Watson platform .
On January 30 , 2013 , it was announced that Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute would receive a successor version of Watson , which would be housed at the Institute 's technology park and be available to researchers and students . By summer 2013 , Rensselaer had become the first university to receive a Watson computer .
On February 6 , 2014 , it was reported that IBM plans to invest $ 100 million in a 10 @-@ year initiative to use Watson and other IBM technologies to help countries in Africa address development problems , beginning with healthcare and education .
On June 3 , 2014 , three new Watson Ecosystem partners were chosen from more than 400 business concepts submitted by teams spanning 18 industries from 43 countries . " These bright and enterprising organizations have discovered innovative ways to apply Watson that can deliver demonstrable business benefits , " said Steve Gold , vice president , IBM Watson Group . The winners were Majestyk Apps with their adaptive educational platform , FANG ( Friendly Anthropomorphic Networked Genome ) ; Red Ant with their retail sales trainer ; and GenieMD with their medical recommendation service .
On July 9 , 2014 , Genesys Telecommunications Laboratories announced plans to integrate Watson to improve their customer experience platform , citing the sheer volume of customer data to analyze is staggering .
Watson has been integrated with databases including Bon Appétit magazine to perform a recipe generating platform .
Watson is being used by Decibel , a music discovery startup , in its app MusicGeek which uses the supercomputer to provide music recommendations to its users . The use of the artificial intelligence of Watson has also been found in hospitality industry . GoMoment uses Watson for its Rev1 app , which gives hotel staff a way to quickly respond to questions from guests . Arria NLG has built an app that helps energy companies stay within regulatory guidelines , making it easier for managers to make sense of thousands of pages of legal and technical jargon .
OmniEarth , Inc. uses Watson computer vision services to analyze satellite and aerial imagery , along with other municipal data , to infer water usage on a property @-@ by @-@ property basis , helping water districts in drought @-@ stricken California improve water conservation efforts .
= = = Healthcare = = =
In healthcare , Watson 's natural language , hypothesis generation , and evidence @-@ based learning capabilities allow it to function as a clinical decision support system for use by medical professionals . To aid physicians in the treatment of their patients , once a physician has posed a query to the system describing symptoms and other related factors , Watson first parses the input to identify the most important pieces of information ; then mines patient data to find facts relevant to the patient 's medical and hereditary history ; then examines available data sources to form and test hypotheses ; and finally provides a list of individualized , confidence @-@ scored recommendations . The sources of data that Watson uses for analysis can include treatment guidelines , electronic medical record data , notes from physicians and nurses , research materials , clinical studies , journal articles , and patient information . Despite being developed and marketed as a " diagnosis and treatment advisor , " Watson has never been actually involved in the medical diagnosis process , only in assisting with identifying treatment options for patients who have already been diagnosed .
In February 2011 , it was announced that IBM would be partnering with Nuance Communications for a research project to develop a commercial product during the next 18 to 24 months , designed to exploit Watson 's clinical decision support capabilities . Physicians at Columbia University would help to identify critical issues in the practice of medicine where the system 's technology may be able to contribute , and physicians at the University of Maryland would work to identify the best way that a technology like Watson could interact with medical practitioners to provide the maximum assistance .
In September 2011 , IBM and WellPoint , a major American healthcare provider , announced a partnership to utilize Watson 's data crunching capability to help suggest treatment options to physicians . Then , in February 2013 , IBM and WellPoint gave Watson its first commercial application , for utilization management decisions in lung cancer treatment at Memorial Sloan – Kettering Cancer Center .
IBM announced a partnership with Cleveland Clinic in October 2012 . The company has sent Watson to the Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University , where it will increase its health expertise and assist medical professionals in treating patients . The medical facility will utilize Watson 's ability to store and process large quantities of information to help speed up and increase the accuracy of the treatment process . " Cleveland Clinic 's collaboration with IBM is exciting because it offers us the opportunity to teach Watson to ' think ' in ways that have the potential to make it a powerful tool in medicine , " said C. Martin Harris , MD , chief information officer of Cleveland Clinic .
On February 8 , 2013 , IBM announced that oncologists at the Maine Center for Cancer Medicine and Westmed Medical Group in New York have started to test the Watson supercomputer system in an effort to recommend treatment for lung cancer .
= = = IBM Watson Group = = =
On January 9 , 2014 IBM announced it was creating a business unit around Watson , led by senior vice president Michael Rhodin . IBM Watson Group will have headquarters in New York 's Silicon Alley and will employ 2 @,@ 000 people . IBM has invested $ 1 billion to get the division going . Watson Group will develop three new cloud @-@ delivered services : Watson Discovery Advisor , Watson Engagement Advisor , and Watson Explorer . Watson Discovery Advisor will focus on research and development projects in pharmaceutical industry , publishing and biotechnology , Watson Engagement Advisor will focus on self @-@ service applications using insights on the basis of natural language questions posed by business users , and Watson Explorer will focus on helping enterprise users uncover and share data @-@ driven insights based on federated search more easily . The company is also launching a $ 100 million venture fund to spur application development for " cognitive " applications . According to IBM , the cloud @-@ delivered enterprise @-@ ready Watson has seen its speed increase 24 times over — a 2 @,@ 300 percent improvement in performance , and its physical size shrank by 90 percent — from the size of a master bedroom to three stacked pizza boxes . IBM CEO Virginia Rometty said she wants Watson to generate $ 10 billion in annual revenue within ten years .
= = = Chatterbot = = =
Watson is being used via IBM partner program as a Chatterbot to provide the conversation for children 's toys .
= = = Jill Watson : TA = = =
Ashok Goel , professor at Georgia Tech , used Watson to create a virtual Teaching Assistant to assist students in his class Initially , Goel didn 't reveal the nature of " Jill " , which was created with the help of a few students and IBM . Jill answered questions where it had a 97 % certainty of an accurate answer , with the remainder being answered by human assistants .
= = = J ! Archive = = =
Jeopardy ! Show # 6086 - Game 1 , Part 1
Jeopardy ! Show # 6087 - Game 1 , Part 2
Jeopardy ! Show # 6088 - Game 2
= = = Videos = = =
PBS NOVA documentary on the making of Watson
Building Watson – A Brief Overview of the DeepQA Project on YouTube ( 21 : 42 ) , IBMLabs
How Watson Answers a Question on YouTube
David Ferrucci , Dan Cerutti and Ken Jennings on IBM 's Watson at Singularity Summit 2011 on YouTube
A Computer Called Watson on YouTube - November 15 , 2011 , David Ferrucci at Computer History Museum , alternate
IBM Watson and the Future of Healthcare on YouTube - 2012
IBM Watson @-@ Introduction and Future Applications on YouTube - IBM at EDGE 2012
IBM Watson for Healthcare on YouTube - Martin Kohn , 2013
Jeopardy ! IBM Watson day 3 ( 2011 ) . Retrieved July 26 , 2012 on YouTube
IBM Watson playlist , IBMLabs Watson playlist
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= Title TK =
Title TK is the third studio album by American alternative rock band the Breeders , released in May 2002 . From the album — whose name means " title to come " in journalistic shorthand — the Breeders released three singles : " Off You " , " Huffer " , and " Son of Three " . Title TK reached the top 100 in France , Germany , the United Kingdom , and Australia , and number 130 in the United States .
Following many changes in personnel after the release the album Last Splash , by 1996 singer and songwriter Kim Deal was the only remaining original member of the Breeders . The next year , she returned to the studio in an attempt to record a follow @-@ up album , but her behavior — including drug use and demanding expectations — alienated the many musicians and engineers with whom she worked .
In 1999 , joined by her sister Kelley , Deal began recording sessions with engineer Steve Albini in Chicago . Fear members Mando Lopez and Richard Presley , and musician Jose Medeles joined the line @-@ up . The group continued recording with Albini in 2001 . Title TK was complied from the output of these sessions and supplemented with two tracks recorded in Los Angeles with engineers Andrew Alekel and Mark Arnold . Of the twelve songs on the album , ten are credited solely to Kim Deal ; the other two were written by all five band members .
Commentary on the album has included discussion of its minimal instrumentation and the interjection of unexpected sounds . Reviewers have described the lyrics on its songs as unconventional and dark , and noted the prominence of vocal harmonies between the Deal sisters . The reception of Title TK has been generally positive ; commentators have praised Albini 's contributions to the sound of the album and observed that the musical arrangements isolate the individual components , such as vocals , guitar , and drums .
= = Background and initial recording attempts = =
From the formation of the Breeders in 1989 until the mid @-@ 1990s , the composition of the group changed several times . By 1996 , vocalist and songwriter Kim Deal was the only original member . The line @-@ up who recorded the group 's debut album , Pod ( 1990 ) , included Tanya Donelly and Britt Walford ; they were replaced by Jim Macpherson and Deal 's sister Kelley by the time of the band 's 1993 album Last Splash . Kelley Deal and original member Josephine Wiggs left in 1995 . Kim Deal formed the Amps that year , but reformed the Breeders in 1996 — initially using the Amps ' line @-@ up of Deal , Macpherson , Luis Lerma , and Nate Farley .
Throughout 1997 , Deal attempted to record tracks for a forthcoming album . By this time , she had become difficult to work with , and had adopted overly demanding musical standards for her bandmates . Her behaviour , and the unpleasant atmosphere of the recording sessions , caused Macpherson and Farley to leave the group during this period . Several other musicians recruited throughout the year left for similar reasons . The 1997 sessions cost hundreds of thousands of dollars through the use of four New York studio locations , the expense of moving equipment between them , and hotel costs .
Three recording engineers also parted ways with Deal in 1997 . The first engineer she hired — Mark Freegard , who had helped to record Last Splash — has remarked that Deal was " totally lost " and that after seven weeks in the studio , there were no usable recordings . Two subsequent engineers , John Agnello and Bryce Goggin , had each worked with Deal in 1995 on parts of the Amps ' album Pacer . Agnello became increasingly frustrated with Deal 's drug use and the difficulty of retaining musicians ; when Deal disappeared for several days , he left the recording sessions . Goggin was put off by Deal 's " futile ... standards " ; when she was unsatisfied with a drumming performance ( by the percussionist of the Flaming Lips ) that Goggin thought was outstanding , he told her to master the drums herself . Deal followed his advice , and returned to her home in Ohio to practice the instrument .
= = Subsequent recording and coalescence of the group = =
Deal began recording again in 1999 , first in Austin , Texas , and then at Electrical Audio studio in Chicago with Steve Albini , with whom she had previously worked on Pod , Pacer , and the Pixies ' album Surfer Rosa . Although Deal performed most of the instrumental parts herself at these 1999 sessions , her sister had some involvement . They recorded " The She " , " Forced to Drive " , and " Too Alive " in Chicago ; Deal 's drum performance on the latter track was from the Texas session .
Deal was satisfied with the material recorded to this point , but realized she would not be able to tour without a band . She returned to New York to look for a backing group in March 2000 . After a chance meeting with members of the group Fear , she invited drummer Andrew Jaimez , bassist Mando Lopez , and guitarist Richard Presley to jam with her at the studio she was renting . Deal wanted to continue playing with these musicians ; within three months , she moved to Los Angeles , where Fear was based . Jaimez , Lopez , and Presley joined the Breeders ; soon after , Kelley Deal rejoined the group . For much of the rest of the year , the ensemble wrote and practiced songs . Jaimez was involved in other musical projects , and decided that he did not have enough time for the Breeders ; he was replaced by Jose Medeles .
The five Breeders returned to Chicago in mid @-@ 2001 to continue recording with Albini . " Little Fury " , " London Song " , " Off You " , " Put on a Side " , " Full on Idle " , " T and T " , and " Huffer " were recorded during the 2001 session . At some point in 2000 to 2002 , the group also spent time at the Grandmaster Recording Ltd. studio in Los Angeles , resulting in " Son of Three " and " Sinister Foxx " ; the engineers at this session were Mark Arnold and Andrew Alekel . Kelley Deal has stated that " Little Fury " and " Sinister Foxx " started as " just ideas " by the sisters that turned into full collaborations by the group — all five musicians received songwriting credits on these tracks . Kim Deal is credited as sole songwriter on the remaining ten tracks , although other band members contributed musical ideas as well . Another song from the Title TK sessions , " Fire the Maid " , written and sung by Kelley Deal , was performed in concert in 2000 and 2001 , but was not included on the album .
Over the course of the Title TK sessions , Kim Deal adopted a philosophy she calls " All Wave " . This approach stipulates that only analog recording processes , and no computer manipulation , may be used . Deal has said that she likes " interesting mistakes " in song production , and that her beliefs about recording are " a reaction ... to everything sounding so straight and clean in most records today " . The album 's mastering was also done using analog processes , by Albini and Steve Rook , at Abbey Road Studios in London .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Multiple reviewers have noted the minimal instrumentation used on Title TK . Throughout the album , unpredictable musical ideas occur : one reviewer has commented that " keyboards buzz from out of nowhere , guitars hit bum notes intentionally , basslines amble up and down the scale , sometimes two at a time " ; another commentator has described the progression of the track " Put on a Side " as follows : " At 1 @.@ 28 there is a distorted chug . At 2 @.@ 29 a drum @-@ roll . Neither of these introduces anything , continues or reappears . They just pop up and then evaporate like accidental fireworks . " Opinion has varied on other aspects of the album ; some reviews observed differences in the speed and levity of the songs , while others commented on the unified feel of the album .
Reviewers have also commented on the unorthodox character of Title TK 's lyrics . Certain lyrics have been described as " poetry " — such as the lines " If I find the door / I am the son of Go " in " Son of Three " and " Round up holler girl / Ah I will sing / Title TK / If I don 't black out / Dumb made for fucking / And missing from the party / That boy spun out " in " Little Fury " — but also as " cryptic " and as " imagistic baffle " . While some critics have made reference to the dark tendencies of the lyrics , others have commented on the humor on the album . Themes reviewers have heard in the songs include road trips and absence .
The singing on Title TK has been noted for its prominent harmonies between the Deal sisters . Kim Deal 's vocals on the album have been described as rough but endearing .
= = = Songs = = =
Title TK begins with " Little Fury " , named after a kind of pocketknife — sold at truck stops — on which the word " fury " is written . On this call and response track , the Deal sisters sing over a heavy bassline and prominent drums . Drowned in Sound 's J.R. Moores writes that " Somebody considers unleashing a guitar solo , yet its notes are few and the vocals kick back in before it has the chance to go anywhere . Is it a solo or a riff ? Whatever it is , it flicks its middle finger at other solos and riffs , exposing them as absurd , flamboyant , shallow fripperies . I 'm not part of that club , it says . " For PopMatters 's Matt Cibula , the repeated line " Hold what you 've got " is the Deals ' reminder to themselves to keep the Breeders intact henceforth .
On " London Song " , the guitar performance has a particular syncopation that Jim Abbot ( The Orlando Sentinel ) equates with Title TK 's " world @-@ weary attitude " and the sisters ' " tough lost years … that [ are ] obvious from Kim 's disconnected delivery on songs about hard times " . Contrastingly , NY Rock 's Jeanne Fury comments on the track 's upbeat , quirky energy .
In the album 's liner notes , critic Mia Clarke describes the slow ballad " Off You " as having a lackadaisical feel ; Pitchfork Media 's Will Bryant is struck by the song 's ominousness , and compares it to the Pink Floyd album The Wall . For Rolling Stone 's Arion Berger , " Off You " is " as direct and heartbreaking as an eighty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old blues recording , and Kim , her voice clear and full of hope , can 't help sounding like a young woman who 's lived ten awful lifetimes " .
" The She " , named after a night club that the Deals ' brother used to frequent , has been described as having a funky feel , with a start @-@ and @-@ stop rhythm of bass and drums . Bryant hears the track 's keyboard part as reminiscent of the group Stereolab , while Phares likens the entire song to Jefferson Airplane 's " White Rabbit " . Cibula mentions that the " creepy / cool … sound [ fits ] the characteristic Kim Deal familiar / strange lyrics : ' Sorrow blowin ’ through the vents / I ’ m over Houston / You ’ re over the night we met . ' "
On " Too Alive " , Kim Deal played all instruments , with vocals by both sisters . Moores notes the track 's buoyant feel and the steady strumming style of Deal 's guitar ; for Phares , the song possesses an immediacy as though the listener were there watching the performance in person .
Bryant identifies " Son of Three " as an example of " when the Breeders set out to rock " , noting " the chugging guitars and stomping drums " . For Title TK 's third single , the Breeders re @-@ recorded the composition in July 2002 ; this version is faster than the album track , and reflects the speed they were playing the song in concert that year . The Guardian 's Betty Clarke asserts that the lyrics of both " Son of Three " and " The She " suggest extended road trips with unknown outcomes .
Regarding the album 's next song , " Put on a Side " , more than one critic has commented on its distinctive bassline , and others have described the track 's cramped , repressive feel . Berger writes that Kim Deal 's " voice grinds sweetly , weariedly , sloppily inside your brain " , as she repeats twelve words over the course of the song : " Better I better I stayed up / Better mono , put on a side " .
An earlier version of " Full on a Idle " , Title TK 's eighth track , was released on the Amps ' Pacer in 1995 . In a 1997 interview , Deal expressed an interest in redoing multiple Amps ' compositions , partially because she did not feel Pacer was well recorded . Bryant believes both versions of " Full on Idle " sound almost the same , but The Village Voice 's Jessica Grose maintains that the Breeders ' rendition is noticeably slower . In Cibula 's view , this version contains elements of country music , cumbia , and ska . Betty Clarke cites the line " Obey your colorist , bleach it all away " as an example of Title TK 's amusing , off @-@ center lyrics .
On " Sinister Foxx " , Deal repeatedly sings " Has anybody seen the iguana ? " She has explained this as being a reference to buying marijuana : " Have you ever bought a bag of weed ? You walk in , and the pot dealer 's got an empty terrarium ... Every time I go to a pot dealer 's house , there 's no iguana . " Another line , " I 'm in beer class every Thursday night " , refers to the alcohol awareness classes that Richard Presley attended , due to having been caught driving drunk . Phares describes the song as having a " sexy menace " , and Berger compares the drum part to gunshots and door @-@ knocking .
Moores identifies in " Forced to Drive " the " quiet @-@ LOUD @-@ quiet " dynamic for which Deal 's former band , the Pixies , are famous ; Berger expresses this same duality by contrasting the song 's " pop verses " with " the gloom of a twisty , malignant chorus " . For Abbot , this four @-@ chord chorus " approaches exuberance " in its mixture of catchy melody and grunge .
The penultimate track , " T and T " , is described by Bryant as an instrumental introduction leading into " Huffer " ; indeed , Kelley Deal has stated that these two songs share a thematic union : the latter is about the negative side of inhaling paint or other substances , while the former stands for " Toil and Trouble " — a further emphasizing of the hardships that inhaling chemicals can cause . " Huffer " is , according to Moores , a lively , poppy track ; critics have commented on its " da @-@ da @-@ da " and " ah @-@ ah " chorus .
= = Release and reception = =
Title TK was released on May 20 – 21 , 2002 , on labels including 4AD ( United Kingdom ) , Elektra Records ( United States ) , V2 Records ( Belgium ) , Virgin Records ( France ) , and P @-@ Vine Records ( Japan ) . The phrase " Title TK " means " title to come " in journalistic shorthand . The album 's art design was done by Vaughan Oliver and Chris Bigg , with additional photography by Onie M. Montes ; Oliver , who had begun doing artwork for 4AD in 1980 , also designed Breeders ' releases including Pod and Last Splash . Three singles were released from Title TK : " Off You " , " Huffer " , and " Son of Three " ; " Off You " reached number 25 on the Canadian Digital Songs chart , and " Son of Three " number 72 on the UK Singles Chart . Title TK reached the top 100 in the United Kingdom , Australia , France , and Germany , and peaked at number 130 in the United States .
Critics have mostly responded positively to the album . The critical aggregator website Metacritic awards Title TK a score of 71 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " , based on the reviews of 19 critics . Betty Clarke singles out the " separation of sounds " on tracks such as " T and T " and " Off You " as the best aspect of the album , and writes that Title TK is " a welcome return to punky pop that knows how to flex some melodic muscle " . Berger , while emphasizing the pain and melancholy present in the songs , praises the record as " absolutely beautiful " . NME reviewer John Robinson hears the album as " tuneful ... and impressively empty sounding , the arrangements of the tunes showcasing skeletal guitar and drum patterns and Deal 's remarkable voice " . Cibula " really like [ s ] " Title TK , and opines that it sounds " buzzy and funny and swaggering in that special Albini uber @-@ geek sort of way " . Billboard critic Brian Garrity comments that Title TK " retains the offbeat charm that has always been at the center of the band 's appeal " .
More negatively , Melanie McFarland of The Seattle Times asserts that the Breeders " haven 't solidified [ their magic ] with Title TK " and that " all Breeders albums have mood swings , but this one has too many " . Spin magazine 's Steve Kandell characterizes the album as " a little unsure of itself " , and points to the Breeders ' re @-@ recording of Pacer 's " Full on Idle " as evidence that " the creative coffers weren 't exactly spilling over " for Deal .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kim Deal , except where noted .
Japanese release
The Japanese release contains the following bonus tracks :
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel were involved in making Title TK :
= = = Musicians = = =
Kim Deal – guitar , organ , drums , bass , vocals
Kelley Deal – guitar , bass , vocals
Richard Presley – guitar
Mando Lopez – bass , guitar
Jose Medeles – drums
John McEntire – drum roll on " The She "
= = = Engineering and mastering = = =
Steve Albini – engineering , mastering
Mark Arnold – engineering
Andrew Alekel – engineering
Steve Rook – mastering
= = = Art design = = =
Vaughan Oliver – art design
Chris Bigg – art design
Onie M. Montes – additional photography
= = Charts = =
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= Characters of Myst =
The Myst series of adventure computer games deal with the events following the player 's discovery of a mysterious book describing an island known as Myst . The book is no ordinary volume ; it is a linking book , which serves as a portal to the world it describes . The player is transported to Myst Island , and must unravel the world 's puzzles in order to return home . Myst was a commercial and critical success upon release , and spawned four sequels — Riven , Exile , Revelation and End of Ages — as well as several spinoffs and adaptations .
While the player , referred to as a Stranger , remains faceless and unnamed , Myst and its sequels introduce a variety of non @-@ player characters . The inhabitants of Myst include the explorer Atrus , a writer of many linking books , and his wife Catherine and their children . Other characters introduced in the series include Gehn , Atrus ' power @-@ hungry father ; Saavedro , a traumatized victim of Atrus ' sons ; and Esher , a member of an old civilization whose motives for helping the player are ambiguous .
The first Myst titles used pre @-@ rendered graphics , and digitally inserted footage of live actors into the backgrounds . For Myst V : End of Ages , a different approach was taken ; a special camera recorded actor 's faces and mapped the video onto digital models . The characters of Myst have been generally praised in each installment . Reviewers found that the live action characters increased immersion , while the digital body language and spoken conviction in End of Ages endeared the characters to the player . Dissenting reviewers considered Myst 's acting overly melodramatic and overwrought .
= = Development = =
When the first game in the franchise , Myst , was created , all the characters were created from footage of live actors . The actors were filmed on a bluescreen , then added to the pre @-@ rendered backgrounds via chroma key . Due to a limited amount of time and money , Myst 's creators , Rand and Robyn Miller , took on roles in the game themselves ;
The Ages of Myst were occasionally seen as lonely by players and reviewers . As a result , Cyan added more characters to the sequel , Riven . Villagers scurry away as the player approaches , and major characters such as Gehn and a rebel band known as the Moiety address the player and give or take items away from him or her . For the first time , Cyan directed the live action actors for Riven 's scenes ; the designers , including Richard Vander Wende , were apprehensive about how the characters would fit in the finished product . Rand Miller reprised his role of Atrus due to fan expectation , even though he hated acting .
Later Myst titles improved on the integration of live action sequences in the prerendered environments of the games . Myst III : Exile 's developers filmed all the scenes using standard definition cameras , which producer Dan Irish would look back on as a mistake ; without using high definition video cameras , the video did not look crisp at high resolutions . For the next game , Myst IV : Revelation , Ubisoft allowed players to move the game camera and interact with the video while it is playing through the use of the ALIVE game engine .
Myst V : End of Ages was developed so that players could freely navigate Ages rendered in realtime , which meant that the traditional digital insertion of characters into the setting would be infeasible . The models of End of Ages 's characters were instead computer @-@ generated . A special device was created that captured video of the actor 's faces while they spoke their lines , as Cyan did not want to lose the warmth and feeling provided by using a live actor . The video was then manipulated and used as a facial texture that was mapped onto the 3D characters . Motion capture was also used to ensure lifelike movement . Cyan staff were worried that the audio syncing for animation would not be finished in time for the E3 unveiling of the game , but were happy with the end results .
The player character in Myst , Riven , Exile and Revelation is the " stranger " ; the character 's real name is never given and remains faceless at all times . Atrus addresses the player character as " my friend " in cutscenes . Cyan 's intent was for players to feel as though they were themselves there , stranded on a mysterious island with no choice but to explore . Thus , the games ' protagonist is an anonymous , gender @-@ neutral entity with no given history , and players are free to imagine themselves as the protagonist .
= = Characters = =
= = = Atrus and Catherine = = =
Atrus is the main non @-@ player character in the Myst series , appearing in all five games of the main series ; he also narrates the opening of Uru : Ages Beyond Myst . He is a member of the ancient D 'ni civilization , though his only D 'ni inheritance is through his paternal grandfather . The D 'ni perfected a craft known as the Art , which allowed them to create portals to other worlds known as Ages by writing a descriptive " linking book " . After the fall of the D 'ni civilization , Atrus ' father , Gehn , teaches him the Art and Atrus creates many linking books , surpassing his father 's skill in writing . Atrus comes to understand his father 's power @-@ hungry nature ; as punishment for defying him , Gehn traps Atrus on K 'veer , an island off of the main D 'ni city , with a book leading to Gehn 's Age of Riven as the only escape .
On Riven Atrus meets Catherine , a local inhabitant and a student of Gehn . Together they trap Gehn on Riven . Atrus ' grandmother , Anna ( " Ti 'ana " ) , helps Catherine by writing the Age of Myst as an escape route while Atrus destroys every other linking book on Riven . The linking book to Myst is dropped into a starry expanse known as the Star Fissure , where it is presumed lost ( but later found by the Stranger , beginning the events of Myst ) . Catherine and Atrus start a family on Myst , raising their two sons , Sirrus and Achenar ; however , both boys grew greedy and sought to strand their parents , trapping Atrus on K 'veer ( an island in the cavern near the main D 'ni city ) , and luring Catherine to Riven , where she is captured by Gehn . The Stranger 's discovery of the Myst linking book saves Atrus from being trapped in K 'veer a second time , and Catherine from Gehn 's clutches . Moving to Tomahna , Atrus and Catherine have a third child , their daughter Yeesha , and attempt to resurrect the D 'ni by writing a new Age for the people called Releeshahn . By the events of End of Ages , Catherine has died ( likely from old age ) , and an elderly Atrus confines himself in Releeshahn to live out the rest of his life . Atrus is played by Rand Miller in all the Myst installments . Catherine is portrayed by Sheila Goold in Riven , with her voice dubbed by Rengin Altay , and Maria Galante in Exile .
= = = Sirrus and Achenar = = =
Sirrus and Achenar are the sons of Atrus and Catherine and are the eldest of their three children . They first appear in Myst , trapped in two different books . Each swears that he is innocent of plundering their father 's Ages , and that the other brother is to blame . In actuality , both brothers grew greedy , destroyed Atrus ' library , killed the inhabitants of the Ages , and attempted to strand their parents forever . They in turn are trapped in special prison books Atrus designed to imprison unwanted travelers . Once he is freed by the Stranger , Atrus burns Sirrus and Achenar 's books .
Revelation reveals that the brothers remained exiled on two different Ages for almost twenty years , where Atrus and Catherine hoped they would reform . In Revelation , Sirrus and Achenar escape their prisons , and Sirrus plans on swapping bodies with his sister Yeesha in order to learn the Art and kill his parents . Achenar , who has reformed during his imprisonment , instead works with the Stranger to save his sister . Sirrus is killed when the mind @-@ switch fails ; Achenar is fatally poisoned when he repairs the machinery to save his sister . In Myst , Sirrus was played by Robyn Miller , and Achenar by brother Rand ; in Revelation , the brothers are played by Brian Wrench and Guy Sprung , respectively .
= = = Yeesha = = =
Yeesha is the only daughter of Atrus and Catherine . She is briefly mentioned in the novel Myst : The Book of D 'ni , and is first seen as an infant in Exile . Yeesha is seen by her parents as a correction to the mistakes they made with their wayward sons . Her parents teach her D 'ni and the Art . In Revelation , her brother Sirrus attempts to use Yeesha in a plan to learn the Art and kill his parents , but Yeesha is freed by the Stranger and Achenar .
An adult Yeesha appears in Uru : Ages Beyond Myst and is one of two main characters in End of Ages , where she tries to persuade the player to help free an enslaved race known as the Bahro by unlocking a powerful Tablet . Over the course of her life , Yeesha takes on many roles , eventually assuming the aspect of a prophesized D 'ni savior @-@ figure known as " The Grower " . Baby Yeesha is played by Exile game producer Greg Uhler 's daughter . Juliette Gosselin plays a young Yeesha in Revelation and Rengin Altay voices the character as an adult in Uru and End of Ages .
= = = Gehn = = =
Gehn is the father of Atrus , and the antagonist of Riven . Gehn is born to Master Aitrus of the Guild of Surveyors ( for whom his son is named ) and his human wife , Anna ( or Ti 'ana , as she is known in D 'ni ) , shortly before the downfall of the D 'ni civilization . Believing that he creates worlds by writing linking books , Gehn considers himself a god and dedicates his life to rebuilding the fallen D 'ni empire . Realizing his madness , Atrus turns against his father ; with the help of Catherine , he traps Gehn on the Age of Riven , " a prison of my own creation " as Gehn later relates it , for nearly thirty years .
Gehn 's inability to grasp the fine aspects of the Art of Writing , leading him to copy or alter sentences from existing books rather than writing original passages , results in his Ages being unstable . Gehn tends to be unimaginative : besides having no talent for the Art , he merely numbers his Ages rather than naming them ( Riven is his " Fifth Age " , for instance ) , and as long as it will give him what he seeks , prefers to smash his way through D 'ni puzzle locks made with delicate materials rather than figure them out .
When Catherine is stranded on Riven , Atrus must send the Stranger to rescue her , as he is busy making changes to the Age to delay its collapse . The Stranger tricks Gehn into a special prison book created by Atrus , and Gehn 's oppressed subjects are evacuated from Riven before the Age of Riven closes forever . Gehn is portrayed by John Keston .
= = = Saavedro = = =
Saavedro is the antagonist of Exile . Depicted as a vengeful and broken man , Saavedro is an inhabitant of the Age of Narayan , one of the Ages chosen by Atrus to try to teach his sons Sirrus and Achenar about the Art of writing books linking to other worlds . Saavedro agrees to help tutor Atrus ' sons , but is shocked when the brothers instigate a destructive rebellion and abandon the Age to be destroyed . When Saavedro pursues Sirrus and Achenar to the Age of J 'nanin , he is assaulted and left for dead . Trapped on J 'nanin and believing Narayan destroyed and his family to be dead , Saavedro 's mental health deteriorates during his years of captivity . When Saavedro is unexpectedly freed and travels to Tomahna in hope of finding the brothers , he steals the linking book for Releeshahn in a plan to lure Atrus to Narayan and exact revenge . Once on Narayan , Saavedro discovers that his people have not been destroyed . Cornered by the Stranger , Saavedro gives up the Releeshahn book . In the game 's optimal ending , the player enables Saavedro to peacefully return to Narayan , before taking Releeshahn back to Atrus . Saavedro is portrayed by veteran actor Brad Dourif , who accepted the role of Saavedro because he was a Myst fan . Dourif said that his role for the game was much more difficult than working on movie sets , as he could not see the player he was addressing or interact with the game environment .
= = = Esher = = =
Esher is a D 'ni who survived the downfall of his civilization , and the antagonist of End of Ages . Throughout the game he appears to the player , offering advice and background on different Ages . Esher warns the player not to trust Yeesha , suggesting she has tasked the player with unlocking a powerful Tablet in order to steal its power for herself . If the player gives Esher the tablet instead in one of the " bad " endings of the game , Esher proclaims that he wishes to use the Tablet to control a powerful race of creatures called Bahro for his own purposes , and strands the player on the Age of Myst . The best ending the player can choose results in Esher being handed over to the liberated Bahro to pay for his crimes . Esher is voiced by David Ogden Stiers , who received acclaim for his performance .
= = Reception = =
The absence of character interaction in Myst and Riven was commented upon in reviews . Adventure Gamers called the lack of characters a bad element of the games . Conversely , Laura Miller of Salon called the isolation a distinctive and welcome touch . In comparison to contemporary games , the deep solitude allowed the player to focus on puzzles . " Games with implausible and annoying characters popping up at regular intervals are just too stressful , " said Miller .
From Exile onward , the characters of Myst were generally praised in each release . The live @-@ action characters in the pre @-@ rendered Myst titles were favorably received ; Greg Kasavin of Gamespot said that the series ' use of real actors and full @-@ motion video endeared the characters to the player , giving the games a distinctively personal touch . Fellow Gamespot reviewer Scott Osborne stated the actors delivered convincing performances , and were smoothly incorporated into the game 's scenes . The reviewers of G4tv , on the other hand , called the acting of the earlier installments overwrought and melodramatic .
The change from full motion video to computer generated characters in End of Ages was well received . Macworld stated that the change was initially jarring , but ultimately helped increase the realism of the game . IGN 's Juan Castro said that the characters felt more real than the full motion video actors of previous games ; one reason , the reviewer stated , was because the actors spoke their lines with real conviction . Gamezone credited each character 's individualized body language as contributing to their realism . Gamespot stated that Esher moved and acted like a real person , and that the voice of David Ogden Stiers brought " this interesting character to life " ; the reviewer did feel that the revelation of Esher and Yeesha 's motivations was a letdown , as the character 's true motivations were revealed " with all the unpleasant abruptness of turning on bright , fluorescent lights in a dark room . " Dissenting reviewers such as 1UP.com and G4tv considered the character 's monologues " hyper emotional " , although reviewer Karen Chu admitted the characters still presented a compelling morality play .
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= Rude Boy ( Rihanna song ) =
" Rude Boy " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna , taken from her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . It was released as the album 's third single on February 19 , 2010 , through Def Jam . Rihanna co @-@ wrote the song with StarGate , Ester Dean , Makeba Riddick , and Rob Swire , with Swire also co @-@ producing it with StarGate . " Rude Boy " is an up @-@ tempo dancehall song which incorporates elements of raggamuffin . The song received mixed to positive reviews from critics ; some called it is the highlight of the album , but others criticized Rihanna 's " monotone " and " icy " vocal performance .
" Rude Boy " peaked at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 in its fourth week for five consecutive weeks , and was Rihanna 's sixth US number one single . It was a commercial success globally , peaked at number one in Australia and attained top five positions in Germany , Hungary , Ireland , New Zealand , Norway , Poland , Slovakia , and the United Kingdom . The accompanying music video was directed by Melina Matsoukas , used greenscreen techniques and featured props that included a stuffed lion and zebra . Rihanna performed the song live for the first time at the Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam in South Beach , Miami , and later on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , and Alan Carr : Chatty Man . " Rude Boy " was also featured on the set lists of Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth , Loud , Anti and Diamonds tours .
= = Background and development = =
" Rude Boy " was produced by Rob Swire and StarGate who co @-@ wrote the song with Rihanna , Ester Dean , and Makeba Riddick . During an interview on the television show , Alan Carr : Chatty Man in February 2010 , Carr asked Rihanna about the song 's lyrics , with particular emphasis on the line " Come here Rude Boy , Boy , can you get it up ? / Come here Rude Boy , Boy , is you big enough ? " Rihanna explained : " When we wrote the song , it was kind of a freestyle ... I liked the West Indian influence that the music had , and , I just went in the booth , they were already jotting down some ideas and , that came to me , I just ran in there with the , one of the writers and started coming up with this in the studio and now when people read it back to me like that , ' Come here Rude Boy , is you big enough ' ? , it does sound so disgusting ! " She also explained the development of the song , and said that those lyrics were originally going to be the introduction , but because of the song 's infectious beat , Rihanna decided to make it the hook instead .
In an interview with Us Weekly , Makeba Riddick , who assisted with the song 's vocal production , spoke about the inspiration for the song . Riddick explained that Ester Dean had come up with a concept for the song , and had been working with Stargate to develop it . Upon hearing it , Riddick and Rihanna expressed interest in the song but thought that some changes were needed , and sent it to Riddick for completion . Riddick also explained where the idea for some of the sexually provocative lyrics came from : " I was listening to the words and me and [ Rihanna ] and we were just laughing and talking about so many situations that have happened in the past and that happen to women everywhere . By the time we were done of course , we were laughing and giggling about the lyrics – surprisingly everybody went nuts over the song . " Dean explained the development of " Rude Boy " in an interview with The Boom Box , and said that she wanted to channel Rihanna 's alter ego and use it as inspiration for the song 's lyrics . Dean praised Rihanna 's ability to take risks with her music , saying " I think Rihanna is sexy and will say things that other chicks won 't say . Even if she says let 's go kiss some girls , who really cares ... that 's Rihanna . Music is about fantasy . This is what people want to do , but are afraid to do . "
= = Composition = =
" Rude Boy " is an uptempo dancehall song. which incorporates elements of raggamuffin . The song is written in the key of E minor ( recorded in E ♭ minor ) with a time signature in common time and a tempo of 87 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range spans from the low note of E3 to the high note of D5 , and the song follows a sequence of Am – Em – F – Dm as its chord progression . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian commented that " Rude Boy " , and the album 's previous single " Hard " , were the highlights of Rated R , praised the singer 's vocal performance in the song , " both of which exploit Rihanna 's most appealing vocal style , a sulky , icy , monotone . " Michael Menachem of Billboard commented on the lyrical content of the song , and wrote , " with ' Rude Boy ' , Rihanna delivers her most provocative lyrics and perhaps most authentic @-@ sounding single to date . " Menachem also wrote about the song 's composition , " Steel drums are a welcome presence on the production , which gives a nod to ska and dancehall . Rihanna 's swagger has never been as convincing as on this song . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Rude Boy " was released as the fourth overall single ( third international ) from Rated R ( 2009 ) . It was sent to urban radio stations in the US on February 9 , 2010 , and was released via digital download on February 19 , 2010 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Los Angeles Times ' reviewer Ann Powers stated that the song has a " ragamuffin @-@ style " , and commented on the lyrics , " Even as she offers herself in no uncertain terms — ' I 'm gon ' let you be the captain tonight ' she sneers — she questions his prowess . ' Can you get it up ? Are you big enough ? ' she repeats in the singsong chorus , making it tough to imagine that any suitor could rise to this occasion . " Bill Lamb of About.com praised the song , and called it " the most instantly engaging song from the album Rated R " , and that " [ Rihanna ] projects a dominant female image that is exactly what was needed to move past the unfortunate Chris Brown chapter in her career " . However , Lamb added that the " icy feel is wearing thin . Rihanna sounds like she has taken a few steps back to distance herself from the whole song . There is a pleasing swagger , but we 're never quite engaged " .
Nick Levine of Digital Spy , commenting on the genre of the song and Rihanna 's musical direction and transition from her previous album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) , wrote that the song " can be construed as a winning synthesis of her Island @-@ pop beginnings , the effortless hitmaking of the Good Girl Gone Bad era and the more menacing persona she 's unveiled post @-@ Grammygate . On the other , it 's just a damn good tune . " Levine also wrote that " Rude Boy " is " the most instantly catchy moment " on Rated R. Alibhe Malone of NME commented on the song 's demeanor in relation to Rated R as a whole , and wrote , " With only one other female songwriter here apart from Rihanna ( Ester Dean on ' Rude Boy ' ) it 's a startlingly masculine record – in sound and in attitude . " Malone also wrote that Rihanna persists in ensuring that listener realizes " how she wants men in her bed . " Ryan Dombell of Pitchfork Media wrote a mixed review of the song ; he called it the flightiest song on Rated R , but praised it as superior to the riskier material on the album .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Rude Boy " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number sixty @-@ four . It peaked at number one a month later , replacing " Break Your Heart " by Taio Cruz , and became Rihanna 's sixth US number one single . Rihanna equaled Paula Abdul and Diana Ross as the female artists with the fifth @-@ most number one singles on the Hot 100 's in its fifty @-@ one year history . " Rude Boy " remained at number one for five consecutive weeks , and was replaced by " Nothin ' On You " by B.o.B featuring Bruno Mars . " Rude Boy " also topped the US Rhythmic Airplay , Pop Songs , and Dance / Club Play Songs charts . " Rude Boy " was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and has sold over 3 million copies in the United States as of June 2015 . " Rude Boy " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number forty @-@ five , and peaked at number one for two weeks in March 14 , 2010 . It remained on the chart for nineteen weeks , and was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting shipments of over 140 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number twenty @-@ five on February 22 , 2010 , and peaked at number three in its fifth week on the chart .
On the UK Singles Chart , " Rude Boy " peaked at number two . It was prevented from reaching the top spot by Tinie Tempah 's " Pass Out " , which debuted at number one and remained there for two weeks . " Rude Boy " was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it peaked at number one for one week on February 27 , 2010 . On April 30 , 2010 , the single was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry , denoting shipments of over 400 @,@ 000 copies . Elsewhere in Europe , the song achieved moderate chart success , peaking at number three in Denmark and Norway for two weeks on both charts , and in both the Flanders and Wallonia regions of Belgium . " Rude Boy " also reached the top ten in Austria , Finland and France , charting at numbers six , seven and eight , respectively . " Rude Boy " was less successful in Sweden , where the song peaked at number eleven . Even though , it was very successful in Romania , where it peaked at number @-@ one on the Romanian Top 100 for five consecutive weeks , becoming Rihanna 's third chart topper there and her longest @-@ running number @-@ one .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for " Rude Boy " was directed by Melina Matsoukas , who also directed the video for Rihanna 's previous single , " Hard " . The video relies upon the use of greenscreen , and contains strong references to critically acclaimed famous artists , including Andy Warhol , Keith Haring , Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa , M.I.A. and Jean @-@ Michel Basquiat . In an interview with Carson Daly on his radio show , Amp Radio , Rihanna described the video as " completely different from any other video " she had done before and " pretty freakin ' cool " . She explained its artistic qualities , and said , " A lot of my videos are really dark and edgy and tough . ' Rude Boy ' is more playing along the lines from my roots . We used a lot of color , but also the costumes were very Jamaican dance @-@ hall @-@ queen type . " The video premiered on February 10 , 2010 , via the high definition music video provider Vevo .
The video features Rihanna in a multitude of vibrant , brightly colored , Caribbean inspired scenes . In the opening scene , Rihanna approaches a drum kit , which she plays as the song progresses . During the rest of the video , Rihanna engages with and plays with a variety of props , including a male extra , a zebra , a motorcycle and a stuffed lion ; these scenes are intercut with scenes of Rihanna playing the drum kit . Rihanna wears a variety of outfits in the video , including a gold net bodysuit and a black and white zebra print catsuit , which she wears while sitting atop a stuffed zebra . Rihanna performs various 1990s dancehall dance moves , such as the Bogle .
= = = Reception and accolades = = =
Upon the video 's release , several media outlets noticed a resemblance between the colorful aesthetics of " Rude Boy " and those of British singer @-@ songwriter and rapper M.I.A. ' s video " Boyz " . Melina Matsoukas responded to the allegations that she had copied the idea , and said , " Afterward I was like , ' Oh , this sucks . They tore down my video ... [ M.I.A. ' s ] video 's great too . It definitely wasn 't trying to rip anybody off at all , it was just our approach and the animation stuff , it had a similar vibe . " Matsoukas explained that the inspiration for the video did not come from one particular source , but from a variety of pop culture icons . She concluded , " We 're all inspired by similar elements and it came together in that way . " Several critics noticed the differences between Rihanna 's previous singles , " Russian Roulette " and " Hard " , and that " Rude Boy " had adopted a care @-@ free and brighter image . Becky Bain of Idolator also noticed the similarities between M.I.A. ' s video " Boyz " and " Rude Boy " , and wrote , " We 're digging the reggae @-@ inflected jam , although the Bob Marley @-@ meets @-@ M.I.A. color explosion becomes a little hard on the eyes after awhile . " Bain said the video " is colorful , loud , vibrant , and a complete departure from the mostly depressing captivity scenarios and over @-@ the @-@ top war imagery of the previous videos from her Rated R singles . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly also commented on the vibrancy of the video and its resemblance to M.I.A. ' s video , " It 's a wild explosion of clashing colors , bold block lettering , and shaky camerawork . As many observers instantly pointed out , it all owes more than a little to the aesthetic of M.I.A. — which , if you ask me , is not a bad thing at all . " Jocelyn Vena of MTV commented on the change of visual direction in the video , calling it " a colorful departure from the dark fare previously released from her Rated R album . " Vena also wrote about the stylization of the video 's content with regard to Rihanna 's heritage . She wrote that the video is infused with " a kaleidoscope of prints and colors , embracing her roots in Caribbean dance @-@ hall @-@ inspired costumes . "
" Rude Boy " won the award for Most Performed Song at the 2011 ASCAP Pop Music Awards and the Award Winning Songs award at the 2011 BMI Urban Awards . The song was also won three awards at the 2011 Barbados Music Awards in the Best Pop / R & B Single , Music Video of the Year and Song of the Year categories . " Rude Boy " was nominated in the ' Best Editing ' category at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " .
Sean Kingston and Detail released a cover version of the song , titled " Rude Girl " . DJ Earworm used " Rude Boy " in his mash @-@ up of the top 25 songs of 2010 titled " United State of Pop 2010 ( Don 't Stop the Pop ) " . He also used " Rude Boy " in his mash @-@ up " Like OMG Baby " , designed for the 2010 Capital FM Summertime Ball Concert where Rihanna performed .
= = Live performances = =
To promote the song as the third US single from Rated R , Rihanna performed " Rude Boy " live for the first time at the Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam on VH1 in South Beach , Miami , on February 4 , 2010 . The set also included " Russian Roulette " and " Hard " , both from Rated R On February 2 , 2010 , Rihanna performed five songs for " AOL Music Sessions " , which were made available to view on the AOL website on February 23 , 2010 . The set included " Rude Boy " , " Russian Roulette " , " Hard " , " Take a Bow " and a stripped down version of " Disturbia " . The singer also performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , which aired on February 15 , 2010 . Robbie Daw of Idolator commented that although Rihanna wore only a leather jacket and visor , she failed to bring the same level of sexuality to the performance which American singer Prince would have evoked .
To promote the song 's release as a single in the UK , Rihanna made a recorded appearance on Alan Carr : Chatty Man on February 24 , 2010 , which was broadcast the following day . The singer wore a crop @-@ top , " bizzare oversized " shorts , an " unusual " hairnet , and large , golden , hooped earrings . Rihanna also demonstrated the dance moves which are featured in the video , including the bogle , the butterfly , and the Dutty Wine , which she taught to the show 's host . " Rude Boy " was also performed on GMTV the following day , where Rihanna also gave a short interview . Rihanna performed " Rude Boy " at the ECHO Awards in Berlin , Germany , on March 4 , 2010 . Rihanna shared the stage with two larger @-@ than @-@ life mechanical robots , which interacted with her throughout the performance .
On March 27 , 2010 , Rihanna performed " Rude Boy " as part of a medley with " Hard " and " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 2010 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards , held at UCLA 's Pauley Pavilion in Westwood , California . The performance featured a large camouflage tank and two robots similar to those used for her performance at the ECHO Awards . On May 23 , 2010 , Rihanna performed a 40 minute set at BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend Music Festival in Bangor , Wales . Rihanna wore a hooded leather playsuit with red , green , and yellow stripes as she performed several of her biggest hits , which included " Mad House " , " Hard " , " Disturbia " , " Rude Boy " , " Te Amo " , " Russian Roulette " , " Don 't Stop the Music " , " SOS " , and " Umbrella " . The song was featured on Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth Tour , . Rihanna was criticized for poor choreography and because she " omitted the difficult parts and even forgot some of the lyrics . " " Rude Boy " was also on the set @-@ list of her Loud Tour , where Rihanna wore a denim bra and high waisted shorts . This performance was received far more positively than that of her previous tour , and critics praised the production of the concert . Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun wrote , " the two @-@ hour , larger @-@ than @-@ life show lived up to the billing . " Rihanna performed " Rude Boy " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the seventh song on the set list .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Rude Boy " – 3 : 43
" Rude Boy " ( Instrumental version ) – 3 : 43
= = Credits and personnel = =
Rihanna – songwriting , vocals
Stargate – songwriting , production , instruments , programming
Ester Dean – songwriting
Makeba Riddick – songwriting
Rob Swire – songwriting , background vocals , instruments , programming
Ross Parkin – assistant recorder
Makeba Riddick – vocal production
Kevin " KD " Davis – mixing at Chung King Studio , New York City
Anthony Palazzole – assistant mixer
Marcos Tovar – recording at Metropolis Studio , London
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rated R.
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Ambrose Burnside =
Ambrose Everett Burnside ( May 23 , 1824 – September 13 , 1881 ) was an American soldier , railroad executive , inventor , industrialist , and politician from Rhode Island , serving as governor and a United States Senator . As a Union Army general in the American Civil War , he conducted successful campaigns in North Carolina and East Tennessee , as well as countering the raids of Confederate General John Hunt Morgan , but suffered disastrous defeats at the Battle of Fredericksburg and Battle of the Crater . His distinctive style of facial hair became known as sideburns , derived from his last name . He was also the first president of the National Rifle Association .
= = Early life and career = =
Burnside was born in Liberty , Indiana and was the fourth of nine children of Edghill and Pamela ( or Pamilia ) Brown Burnside , a family of Scottish origin . His great @-@ great @-@ grandfather Robert Burnside ( 1725 – 1775 ) was born in Scotland and settled in the Province of South Carolina . His father , a native of South Carolina , was a slave owner who freed his slaves when he relocated to Indiana . Ambrose attended Liberty Seminary as a young boy , but his education was interrupted when his mother died in 1841 ; he was apprenticed to a local tailor , eventually becoming a partner in the business .
Through his interest in military affairs and his father 's political connections he obtained an appointment to the United States Military Academy in 1843 . ( Though Caleb Blood Smith recounted Burnside 's brash and independent application to the military academy . ) He graduated in 1847 , ranking 18th in a class of 47 , and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Artillery . He traveled to Veracruz for the Mexican – American War but arrived after hostilities ceased and performed mostly garrison duty around Mexico City .
At the close of the war , Lt. Burnside served two years on the western frontier , serving under Captain Braxton Bragg in the 3rd U.S. Artillery , a light artillery unit that had been converted to cavalry duty , protecting the Western mail routes through Nevada to California . In 1849 , he was wounded by an arrow in his neck during a skirmish against Apaches in Las Vegas , New Mexico . He was promoted to 1st lieutenant on December 12 , 1851 .
In 1852 , he was assigned to Fort Adams , Newport , Rhode Island , and , while there , he married Mary Richmond Bishop of Providence , Rhode Island , on April 27 of that year . The marriage , which lasted until Burnside 's death , was childless .
In October 1853 , Burnside resigned his commission in the United States Army . Although maintaining a position in the state militia , he devoted his time and energy to the manufacture of the famous firearm that bears his name , the Burnside carbine . The Secretary of War under President James Buchanan , John B. Floyd , contracted with the Burnside Arms Company to equip a large portion of the Army , mostly cavalry , with his carbine and induced him to establish extensive factories for its manufacture . The Bristol Rifle Works were no sooner complete than another gunmaker allegedly bribed Floyd to break his $ 100 @,@ 000 contract with Burnside . Burnside ran as a Democrat for one of the Congressional seats in Rhode Island in 1858 and was defeated in a landslide . The burdens of the campaign and the destruction by fire of his factory contributed to his financial ruin , and he was forced to assign his firearm patents to others . He then went west in search of employment and became treasurer of the Illinois Central Railroad , where he worked for , and became friendly with , one of his future commanding officers , George B. McClellan .
= = Civil War = =
= = = First Bull Run = = =
At the outbreak of the Civil War , Burnside was a brigadier general in the Rhode Island Militia . He raised a regiment , the 1st Rhode Island Volunteer Infantry Regiment , and was appointed its colonel on May 2 , 1861 . Two companies of this regiment were then armed with Burnside Carbines . Within a month , he ascended to brigade command in the Department of Northeast Virginia . He commanded the brigade without distinction at the First Battle of Bull Run in July , committing his troops piecemeal , and took over division command temporarily for wounded Brig. Gen. David Hunter . After his 90 @-@ day regiment was mustered out of service on August 2 , he was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers on August 6 , and was assigned to train provisional brigades in the nascent Army of the Potomac .
= = = North Carolina = = =
Burnside commanded the Coast Division , or North Carolina Expeditionary Force , three brigades assembled in Annapolis , Maryland , which formed the nucleus for his future IX Corps , and the Department of North Carolina from September 1861 until July 1862 . He conducted a successful amphibious campaign that closed over 80 % of the North Carolina sea coast to Confederate shipping for the remainder of the war . This included the Battle of Elizabeth City , fought on 10 February 1862 , on the Pasquotank River near Elizabeth City , North Carolina . The participants were vessels of the U.S. Navy 's North Atlantic Blockading Squadron , opposed by vessels of the Confederate Navy 's Mosquito Fleet ; the latter were supported by a shore @-@ based battery of four guns at Cobb 's Point ( now called Cobb Point ) , near the southeastern border of the town . The battle was a part of the campaign in North Carolina that was led by Burnside and known as the Burnside Expedition . The result was a Union victory , with Elizabeth City and its nearby waters in their possession , and the Confederate fleet captured , sunk , or dispersed .
In recognition of his successes at the battles of Roanoke Island and New Bern , the first significant Union victories in the Eastern Theater , he was promoted to major general of volunteers on March 18 , 1862 . In July , his forces were transported north to Newport News , Virginia , and became the IX Corps of the Army of the Potomac .
Following Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan 's failure in the Peninsula Campaign , Burnside was offered command of the Army of the Potomac . Refusing this opportunity , because of his loyalty to McClellan and the fact that he understood his own lack of military experience , he detached part of his corps in support of Maj. Gen. John Pope 's Army of Virginia in the Northern Virginia Campaign . Telegrams extremely critical of Pope 's abilities as a commander from Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter that he received at this time and forwarded on to his superiors in concurrence would later play a significant role in Porter 's court @-@ martial , in which Burnside would appear as a star witness .
Burnside again declined command following Pope 's debacle at Second Bull Run .
= = = Antietam = = =
Burnside was given command of the " Right Wing " of the Army of the Potomac ( the I Corps and his own IX Corps ) at the start of the Maryland Campaign for the Battle of South Mountain , but McClellan separated the two corps at the Battle of Antietam , placing them on opposite ends of the Union battle line , returning Burnside to command of just the IX Corps . Implicitly refusing to give up his higher authority , Burnside treated first Maj. Gen. Jesse L. Reno ( killed at South Mountain ) and then Brig. Gen. Jacob D. Cox as the corps commander , funneling orders to the corps through them . This cumbersome arrangement contributed to his slowness in attacking and crossing what is now called " Burnside 's Bridge " on the southern flank of the Union line .
Burnside did not perform an adequate reconnaissance of the area , and instead of taking advantage of several easy fording sites out of range of the enemy , his troops were forced into repeated assaults across the narrow bridge which was dominated by Confederate sharpshooters on high ground . By noon , McClellan was losing patience . He sent a succession of couriers to motivate Burnside to move forward . He ordered one aide , " Tell him if it costs 10 @,@ 000 men he must go now . " He increased the pressure by sending his inspector general to confront Burnside , who reacted indignantly : " McClellan appears to think I am not trying my best to carry this bridge ; you are the third or fourth one who has been to me this morning with similar orders . " Although the IX Corps eventually broke through , the delay allowed Maj. Gen. A. P. Hill 's Confederate division to come up from Harpers Ferry and repulse the Union breakthrough . McClellan refused Burnside 's requests for reinforcements and the battle ended in a tactical stalemate .
= = = Fredericksburg = = =
McClellan was removed after failing to pursue General Robert E. Lee 's retreat from Antietam , and Burnside was assigned to command the Army of the Potomac on November 7 , 1862 . He reluctantly obeyed this order , the third such in his brief career , in part because when he tried to refuse , the courier told him that the command would go instead to Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker ( whom Burnside disliked ) . President Abraham Lincoln pressured Burnside to take aggressive action and on November 14 approved his plan to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond , Virginia . This plan led to a humiliating and costly Union defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13 . His advance upon Fredericksburg was rapid , but planning in marshaling pontoon bridges for crossing the Rappahannock River and his own reluctance to deploy portions of his army across fording points later delayed the attack . This allowed Gen. Lee to concentrate along Marye 's Heights just west of town and easily repulse the Union attacks . Assaults south of town , which were supposed to be the main avenue of attack , were also mismanaged , and initial Union breakthroughs went unsupported . Upset by the failure of his plan and by the enormous casualties of his repeated , futile frontal assaults , Burnside declared that he would personally lead an assault of the IX corps . His corps commanders talked him out of it , but relations between the commander and his subordinates were strained . Accepting full blame , he offered to retire from the U.S. Army , but this was refused . Burnside 's detractors labeled him the " Butcher of Fredericksburg " .
In January 1863 , Burnside launched a second offensive against Lee , but it bogged down in winter rains before it accomplished anything and has been derisively called the Mud March . In its wake , he asked that several officers , who were openly insubordinate , be relieved of duty and court @-@ martialed ; he also offered to resign . Lincoln chose the latter option on January 26 and replaced him with Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker , one of the officers who had conspired against Burnside .
= = = East Tennessee = = =
Although Burnside offered to resign his commission altogether , Lincoln declined , stating that there could still be a place for him in the army . Thus , he was placed back at the head of the IX Corps and sent to command the Department of the Ohio , encompassing the states of Ohio , Indiana , Kentucky , and Illinois . Since this was a quiet area with little activity going on , the president reasoned that Burnside could not get himself into too much trouble there . However , antiwar sentiment was riding high in the Western states as they had traditionally carried on a great deal of commerce with the South , and there was little in the way of abolitionist sentiment there or a desire to fight for the purpose of ending slavery . Thoroughly disturbed by this trend , Burnside began issuing a series of orders forbidding " the expression of public sentiments against the war or the Administration " in his department , which finally climaxed with General Order No. 38 , which declared that " any person found guilty of treason will be tried by a military tribunal and either imprisoned or banished to enemy lines " . On May 1 , 1863 , Ohio Congressman Clement L. Vallandigham , a prominent opponent of the war , held a large public rally in Mount Vernon , Ohio in which he denounced President Lincoln as a " tyrant " who sought to abolish the Constitution and set up a dictatorship . Burnside had dispatched several agents to the rally who took down notes and brought back their " evidence " to the general , who then declared that it was sufficient grounds to arrest Vallandigham for treason . Despite the Congressman 's protests that he was the victim of simply expressing his opinions in public , a military court tried him and found him guilty of violating General Order No. 38 . He was thus sentenced to imprisonment for the duration of the war . Vallandigham was turned into a martyr by antiwar Democrats . Burnside next turned his attention to Illinois , where the Chicago Times newspaper had been printing antiwar editorials for months . The general dispatched a squadron of troops to the paper 's offices and ordered them to cease printing .
Lincoln had not been asked or informed about either Vallandigham 's arrest or the closure of the Chicago Times . Remembering the section of General Order No. 38 which declared that offenders would be banished to enemy lines , Lincoln finally decided that this was a good idea , and so Vallandigham was freed from jail and sent to Confederate hands . Meanwhile , Lincoln ordered the Chicago Times to be reopened and announced that Burnside had exceeded his authority in both cases . The president then issued a warning that generals were not to arrest civilians or close down newspapers again without the White House 's permission . Burnside also dealt with Confederate raiders such as John Hunt Morgan .
In the Knoxville Campaign , Burnside advanced to Knoxville , Tennessee , first bypassing the Confederate @-@ held Cumberland Gap . After occupying Knoxville unopposed , he sent troops back to the Cumberland Gap . Brig. Gen. John W. Frazer , the Confederate commander , refused to surrender in the face of two Union brigades and Burnside arrived with a third , forcing the surrender of Frazer and 2 @,@ 300 Confederates . After Union Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans was defeated at the Battle of Chickamauga , Burnside was pursued by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet , against whose troops he had battled at Marye 's Heights . Burnside skillfully outmaneuvered Longstreet at the Battle of Campbell 's Station and was able to reach his entrenchments and safety in Knoxville , where he was briefly besieged until the Confederate defeat at the Battle of Fort Sanders outside the city . Tying down Longstreet 's corps at Knoxville contributed to Gen. Braxton Bragg 's defeat by Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant at Chattanooga . Troops under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman marched to Burnside 's aid , but the siege had already been lifted ; Longstreet withdrew , eventually returning to Virginia .
= = = Overland Campaign = = =
Burnside was ordered to take the IX Corps back to the Eastern Theater , where , in Annapolis , Maryland , he built it up to a strength of over 21 @,@ 000 effectives . The IX Corps fought in the Overland Campaign of May 1864 as an independent command , reporting initially to Grant ; his corps was not assigned to the Army of the Potomac because Burnside outranked its commander , Maj. Gen. George G. Meade , who had been a division commander under Burnside at Fredericksburg . This cumbersome arrangement was rectified on May 24 just before the Battle of North Anna , when Burnside agreed to waive his precedence of rank and was placed under Meade 's direct command .
Burnside fought at the battles of Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court House , where he did not perform in a distinguished manner , attacking piecemeal and appearing reluctant to commit his troops to the frontal assaults that characterized these battles . After North Anna and Cold Harbor , he took his place in the siege lines at Petersburg .
= = = The Crater = = =
As the two armies faced the stalemate of trench warfare at Petersburg in July 1864 , Burnside agreed to a plan suggested by a regiment of former coal miners in his corps , the 48th Pennsylvania : dig a mine under a fort named Elliot 's Salient in the Confederate entrenchments and ignite explosives there to achieve a surprise breakthrough . The fort was destroyed on July 30 in what is known as the Battle of the Crater . Because of interference from Meade , Burnside was ordered , only hours before the infantry attack , not to use his division of black troops , which had been specially trained for this mission . He was forced to use untrained white troops instead . He could not decide which division to choose as a replacement , so he had his three subordinate commanders draw lots . The division chosen by chance was that commanded by Brig. Gen. James H. Ledlie , who failed to brief the men on what was expected of them and was reported during the battle to be drunk well behind the lines , providing no leadership . Ledlie 's men entered the huge crater instead of going around it , becoming trapped , and were subjected to heavy fire from Confederates around the rim , resulting in high casualties .
Burnside was relieved of command on August 14 and sent on " extended leave " by Grant . Burnside was never recalled to duty during the remainder of the war . A court of inquiry later placed the blame for the Crater fiasco on Burnside and his subordinates . In December , Burnside met with President Lincoln and General Grant about his future . He was contemplating resignation , but Lincoln and Grant requested that he remain in the Army . At the end of the interview , Burnside wrote , " I was not informed of any duty upon which I am to be placed . " He finally resigned his commission on April 15 , 1865 , after Lee 's surrender at Appomattox .
The United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War later exonerated Burnside , and placed the blame for the Union defeat at the Crater on General Meade for requiring the specially trained USCT ( United States Colored Troops ) men to be withdrawn .
= = Postbellum career = =
After his resignation , Burnside was employed in numerous railroad and industrial directorships , including the presidencies of the Cincinnati and Martinsville Railroad , the Indianapolis and Vincennes Railroad , the Cairo and Vincennes Railroad , and the Rhode Island Locomotive Works .
He was elected to three one @-@ year terms as Governor of Rhode Island , serving from May 29 , 1866 , to May 25 , 1869 .
Burnside was a Companion of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States , a military society of Union officers and their descendants , and served as the Junior Vice Commander of the Massachusetts Commandery in 1869 . He was commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) veterans ' association from 1871 to 1872 , and also served as the Commander of the Department of Rhode Island of the GAR . At its inception in 1871 , the National Rifle Association chose him as its first president .
During a visit to Europe in 1870 , Burnside attempted to mediate between the French and the Germans in the Franco @-@ Prussian War .
In 1876 Burnside was elected as commander of the New England Battalion of the Centennial Legion , the title of a collection of 13 militia units from the original 13 states , which participated in the parade in Philadelphia on July 4 , 1876 , to mark the centennial of the signing of the Declaration of Independence .
In 1874 Burnside was elected by the Rhode Island Senate as a U.S. Senator from Rhode Island , was re @-@ elected in 1880 , and served until his death in 1881 . During that time , Burnside , who had been a Democrat before the war , ran as a Republican , playing a prominent role in military affairs as well as serving as chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee in 1881 .
Burnside died suddenly of " neuralgia of the heart " ( Angina pectoris ) at Bristol , Rhode Island , and is buried in Swan Point Cemetery , Providence , Rhode Island . An equestrian statue in his honor was erected in the late 19th century in Burnside Park in Providence .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
Personally , Burnside was always very popular , both in the army and in politics . He made friends easily , smiled a lot , and remembered everyone 's name . His professional military reputation , however , was less positive , and he was known for being obstinate , unimaginative , and unsuited , both intellectually and emotionally for high command . Grant stated that he was " unfitted " for the command of an army and that no one knew this better than Burnside himself . Knowing his capabilities , he twice refused command of the Army of the Potomac , accepting only the third time when the courier told him that otherwise the command would go to Joseph Hooker . Jeffry D. Wert described Burnside 's relief after Fredericksburg in a passage that sums up his military career :
He had been the most unfortunate commander of the Army , a general who had been cursed by succeeding its most popular leader and a man who believed he was unfit for the post . His tenure had been marked by bitter animosity among his subordinates and a fearful , if not needless , sacrifice of life . A firm patriot , he lacked the power of personality and will to direct recalcitrant generals . He had been willing to fight the enemy , but the terrible slope before Marye 's Heights stands as his legacy .
Bruce Catton summarized Burnside :
... Burnside had repeatedly demonstrated that it had been a military tragedy to give him a rank higher than colonel . One reason might have been that , with all his deficiencies , Burnside never had any angles of his own to play ; he was a simple , honest , loyal soldier , doing his best even if that best was not very good , never scheming or conniving or backbiting . Also , he was modest ; in an army many of whose generals were insufferable prima donnas , Burnside never mistook himself for Napoleon . Physically he was impressive : tall , just a little stout , wearing what was probably the most artistic and awe @-@ inspiring set of whiskers in all that bewhiskered Army . He customarily wore a high , bell @-@ crowned felt hat with the brim turned down and a double @-@ breasted , knee @-@ length frock coat , belted at the waist — a costume which , unfortunately , is apt to strike the modern eye as being very much like that of a beefy city cop of the 1880s .
= = = Sideburns = = =
Burnside was noted for his unusual facial hair , joining strips of hair in front of his ears to his mustache but with the chin clean @-@ shaven ; the word burnsides was coined to describe this style . The syllables were later reversed to give sideburns .
= = Honors = =
An equestrian statue designed by Launt Thompson , a New York sculptor , was dedicated in 1887 at Exchange Place , Providence , facing City Hall . In 1906 , the statue was moved to City Hall Park , which was re @-@ dedicated as Burnside Park .
Bristol , Rhode Island has a small street named for Burnside .
The Burnside Memorial Hall in Bristol , Rhode Island , is a two @-@ story Richardson Romanesque public building on Hope Street . It was dedicated in 1883 by President Chester A. Arthur and Governor Augustus O. Bourn . Originally , a statue of Burnside was intended to be the focus of the porch . The architect was Stephen C. Earle .
Burnside , Kentucky , in south @-@ central Kentucky , is a small town south of Somerset named for the former site of Camp Burnside , near the former Cumberland River town of Point Isabelle .
New Burnside , Illinois , along the Cairo and Vincennes Railroad was named after the former general for his role in founding the village through directorship of the new rail line .
Burnside Residence Hall at the University of Rhode Island in Kingston was opened in 1966 .
= = In popular media = =
Burnside was portrayed by Alex Hyde @-@ White in Ronald F. Maxwell 's 2003 film Gods and Generals , which includes the Battle of Fredericksburg .
A map named " Burnside 's Bridge " was included in Call of Juarez : Bound in Blood , in honoring the memory of Ambrose Burnside .
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= Jay Pritzker Pavilion =
Jay Pritzker Pavilion , also known as Pritzker Pavilion or Pritzker Music Pavilion , is a bandshell in Millennium Park in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . It is located on the south side of Randolph Street and east of the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District . The pavilion was named after Jay Pritzker , whose family is known for owning Hyatt Hotels . The building was designed by architect Frank Gehry , who accepted the design commission in April 1999 ; the pavilion was constructed between June 1999 and July 2004 , opening officially on July 16 , 2004 .
Pritzker Pavilion serves as the centerpiece for Millennium Park and is the new home of the Grant Park Symphony Orchestra and Chorus and the Grant Park Music Festival , the nation 's only remaining free outdoor classical music series . It also hosts a wide range of music series and annual performing arts events . Performers ranging from mainstream rock bands to classical musicians and opera singers have appeared at the pavilion , which even hosts physical fitness activities such as yoga . All rehearsals at the pavilion are open to the public ; trained guides are available for the music festival rehearsals , which are well @-@ attended .
Millennium Park is part of the larger Grant Park . The pavilion , which has a capacity of 11 @,@ 000 , is Grant Park 's small event outdoor performing arts venue , and complements Petrillo Music Shell , the park 's older and larger bandshell . Pritzker Pavilion is built partially atop the Harris Theater for Music and Dance , the park 's indoor performing arts venue , with which it shares a loading dock and backstage facilities . Initially the pavilion 's lawn seats were free for all concerts , but this changed when Tori Amos performed the first rock concert there on August 31 , 2005 .
The construction of the pavilion created a legal controversy , given that there are historic limitations on the height of buildings in Grant Park . To avoid these legal restrictions , the city classifies the bandshell as a work of art rather than a building . With several design and assembly problems , the construction plans were revised over time , with features eliminated and others added as successful fundraising allowed the budget to grow . In the end , the performance venue was designed with a large fixed seating area , a Great Lawn , a trellis network to support the sound system and a signature Gehry stainless steel headdress . It features a sound system with an acoustic design that replicates an indoor concert hall sound experience . The pavilion and Millennium Park have received recognition by critics , particularly for their accessibility ; an accessibility award ceremony held at the pavilion in 2005 described it as " one of the most accessible parks – not just in the United States but possibly the world " .
= = Design and development = =
The Jay Pritzker Pavilion is a home for the Grant Park Music Festival , which began in 1935 in the original Petrillo Music Shell . Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid @-@ 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . In 2007 , Millennium Park trailed only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
When the city first determined that a new pavilion should be built , the commission was supposed to go to Skidmore , Owings and Merrill . The original pavilion design was much more modest than the structure that was eventually built , with a smaller shell structure and speakers affixed to poles interspersed throughout the seating area . However , two factors led to the cancellation of the original plans . First , the project 's scope changed as a result of additional funds raised by John H. Bryan , former CEO of the Sara Lee Corporation . The second factor was the intervention of the Pritzker family as potential donors . Unimpressed with the pavilion 's original design , Cindy Pritzker " mandated that Frank Gehry be involved in its re @-@ design " . Jay Pritzker , a prominent Chicago businessman , had died in January 1999 ; his family own several businesses , including Hyatt Hotels . Jay and Cindy Pritzker had founded the Pritzker Prize in architecture in 1979 , and the Pritzker family 's Hyatt Foundation continues to award it annually . Architect Frank Gehry had received the Pritzker Prize in 1989 .
In February 1999 , the city announced it was negotiating with Gehry to design a proscenium arch and orchestra enclosure for a bandshell in the new park , as well as a pedestrian bridge over Columbus Drive ( which became BP Pedestrian Bridge ) . The city sought donors to cover Gehry 's work , and the Chicago Tribune dubbed him " the hottest architect in the universe " for his acclaimed Guggenheim Museum Bilbao . The Tribune noted Gehry 's designs would not include such Mayor Richard M. Daley trademarks as wrought iron and seasonal flower boxes .
Millennium Park project manager Edward Uhlir said " Frank [ Gehry ] is just the cutting edge of the next century of architecture , " and noted that no other architect was being sought . Skidmore , Owings and Merrill architect Adrian Smith approached Gehry several times on behalf of the city , which originally asked him about doing just a facade , but Gehry was uninterested . A few months later the city asked him to get involved in Millennium Park ; Gehry felt he would prefer to design a building , but that he could not complete it in time for the Millennium , and that he would need a much larger budget than the city had envisioned .
The city wanted Gehry , the donors supported him , and he was interested in the project . The key component in the modern themes strategy was Gehry 's acceptance of the commission in April 1999 . That month , the city announced that the Pritzker family had donated $ 15 million to fund Gehry 's bandshell and an additional nine donors committed a total of $ 10 million . The day of this announcement , after it became clear that Cindy Pritzker would fund the project , Gehry agreed to the design request . In November , when his designs for both the pavilion and bridge were unveiled , Gehry already had the basic design for the bandshell , but said the bridge 's design was very preliminary and not well @-@ conceived because funding for it was not committed . The BP Pedestrian Bridge is designed to serve as a buffer against street noise , helping the pavilion 's acoustics .
According to the Guggenheim Museum , the Jay Pritzker Pavilion " suggests musical qualities " , much like Gehry 's Experience Music Project in Seattle , Washington . The Pritzker Pavilion follows a series of open @-@ air projects by Gehry , such as the Merriweather Post Pavilion in Columbia , Maryland , the Concord Performing Arts Center in Concord , California , and numerous renovations to the Hollywood Bowl in Hollywood , California .
= = Construction = =
Jay Pritzker Pavilion cost $ 60 million , a quarter of which came from the Pritzker family donation . It includes 4 @,@ 000 fixed seats and a 95 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 8 @,@ 800 m2 ) Great Lawn that can accommodate an additional 7 @,@ 000 people . The pavilion was built above and behind the Harris Theater , which has the benefit that Millennium Park 's indoor and outdoor performance venues share a loading dock , rehearsal rooms and other backstage facilities .
The bandshell 's brushed stainless steel headdress frames the 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) proscenium theatre ; the main stage can accommodate a full orchestra and chorus of 150 members . The bandshell is connected to a trellis of interlocking crisscrossing steel pipes that support the innovative sound system , which mimics indoor concert hall acoustics . The pavilion has restrooms on both its east and west sides . It is one of two features in the park to include accessible restrooms ; the other is McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink . The majority of the park 's 123 toilet fixtures ( 78 for women , 45 for men ) are located in underground arcades to the east and west of the pavilion , with the ones on the east being heated for winter use .
Millennium Park is built on top of a large underground parking garage . Construction started before the park 's design was completed , and in January 2000 , 17 additional caissons had to be added to the partially built garage to support the weight of Gehry 's pavilion . In April the tops of all these caissons had to be rebuilt for changes in the pavilion 's foundation .
U.S. Equities Realty was responsible for negotiating contracts with Gehry and all contractors . Walsh Construction and its subcontractors were hired to execute three elements of Gehry 's design : the structural steel supporting the stainless steel ribbons , the ribbons themselves and the trellis and associated sound system .
The LeJeune Steel Company of Minneapolis was the subcontractor for the structural steel . The pavilion 's concrete walls frame the orchestra shell space , which is 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide , 50 feet ( 15 m ) tall and has no support columns . The pavilion 's roof rests on a dozen north – south trusses supported by east – west truss girders . The south side of the orchestra shell space is enclosed by the glass doors of the proscenium , which are about 50 feet ( 15 m ) tall , 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide and function like aircraft hangar doors made of glass . They were the largest doors that Glass Solutions of Elmhurst , Illinois , ever produced ; the thickness of the glass was a design problem for the steel supports .
Zahner of Kansas City , Missouri , was the subcontractor for the pavilion 's ribbons , described as " stainless steel panels that appear to be peeling back from the central opening " . The proscenium 's metal ribbons are composed of 697 panels that range from 6 to 300 square feet ( 0 @.@ 56 – 27 @.@ 87 m2 ) and 1 @,@ 600 to 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 730 – 9 @,@ 070 kg ) with a thickness of about 14 inches ( 36 cm ) . They are made from aluminum with a stainless steel outer layer that has a uniform shade across all panels . The structural steel for the ribbons had an abnormally low fit tolerance of 0 @.@ 125 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 mm ) , rather than the standard 1 to 2 inches ( 25 to 51 mm ) . The proscenium was inspired by Gehry 's 2001 flagship store for Issey Miyake in New York City , which has sculptured titanium that represents pleating . During construction , about five cranes and 18 aerial lifts were on site . The apex of the center element is approximately 150 feet ( 46 m ) high , which was near the limits of basic construction equipment at the time .
Acme Structural of Springfield , Missouri , was the subcontractor for the trellis over the Great Lawn , which resulted from the distributed sound system 's requirement for speakers every 70 feet ( 21 m ) . One way to achieve this would have involved placing the speakers on pipes or columns , but the resulting forest of columns seemed discordant with the architecture . Gehry preferred the trellis although it cost about $ 3 million more than speakers arranged on posts would have . The trellis uses 22 criss @-@ crossing arches in a lattice pattern , and is noted for its parabolic grid . The arches use pipes varying in diameter from 12 – 20 inches ( 30 – 51 cm ) depending upon the load requirements . Arches longer than 300 feet ( 91 m ) have four or five different radii , where radius describes the extent of pipe curvature . The arch pipes connect to the structural steel of the pavilion structure without linking to the metal ribbons . The trellis is 600 by 300 feet ( 183 by 91 m ) .
The pavilion 's construction was aided by the French CATIA software program and internet conferencing . Early plans to incorporate a surrounding waterfall and stairway were abandoned . In the end , budget limitations led to compromises with the original architectural plan that left many elements in their most straightforward form , such as exposed pipes and conduits , or rough concrete .
= = = Acoustics = = =
The Talaske Group of Oak Park , Illinois , was the subcontractor for Jay Pritzker Pavilion 's LARES sound system , which " generates the reflected and reverberant energy that surrounds and envelops the listener in an indoor performance venue " . The system , which effectively produces an even quality of sound throughout the entire venue , has received critical acclaim for its technological adaptations , such as signal processing in a variety of indoor and outdoor venues . The Pritzker Pavilion is the first permanent outdoor installation of the LARES system in the United States . The trellis has both acoustic and architectural functions ; it allows for the precise placement of speakers for sound optimization without visual obstructions , while simultaneously providing a unifying visual canopy .
The overall acoustic system is a distributed sound reinforcement system , which allows musicians on stage to hear each other clearly in a way that facilitates ensemble play . In addition , direct natural sound from the stage is reflected from architectural surfaces as well as being reinforced by two sound systems . The forward @-@ facing reinforcement speakers time the relaying of sound so as to make it seem to have arrived directly from the stage with proper clarity and volume levels . Distributed speakers allow for lower sound volumes than would be necessary with centralized speakers , which would disturb neighboring residences and business .
Instead of merely reinforcing the sound like a traditional public address system , the sound system on the trellis system seeks to replicate the acoustics of a concert hall , and create a clearly defined concert space . Noise from city disturbances is masked by sound arriving directly from lateral sources . Downward facing acoustic enhancement speakers simulate sound reflection similar to indoor concert hall wall and ceiling effects . While Chicago Tribune music critic John von Rhein felt the inaugural concert 's sound quality was " a work in progress " that varied with the listener 's location in the pavilion , critics Kevin Nance and Wayne Delacoma of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said that even on the opening weekend it was clear that the acousticians , Talaske Group , and Gehry had solved many of the problems and mysteries of the outdoor presentation of classical music . John von Rhein subsequently noted in 2005 " the system has been fine @-@ tuned over the past two summers and now delivers a warm , even approximation of concert @-@ hall sound to listeners at even the farthest reaches of the lawn . James Palermo , artistic and general director of the Grant Park Music Festival felt that the musicians were able to interact more effectively with the new sound system because they were able to hear each other better .
= = Controversies = =
Protected by legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings , Grant Park has been " forever open , clear and free " since 1836 , which was a year before the city of Chicago was incorporated . In 1839 , United States Secretary of War Joel Roberts Poinsett declared the land between Randolph Street and Madison Street east of Michigan Avenue " Public Ground forever to remain vacant of buildings . Aaron Montgomery Ward , who is known both as the inventor of mail order and the protector of Grant Park , twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park and to keep it from building new ones . As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park . However , Crown Fountain and the 130 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) Pritzker Pavilion were exempt from the height restrictions because they were classified as works of art and not buildings or structures . According to The Economist , the pavilion is described as a work of art to dodge the protections established by Ward , who " rules over Grant Park from the grave " .
The naming of Jay Pritzker Pavilion was a cause for protests . The new pavilion was built as a replacement for Grant Park 's decades @-@ old Petrillo Music Shell , which had a long history of hosting free music events and was named after James C. Petrillo , a labor union leader who started free concerts in Grant Park . When the original bandshell was replaced and relocated a bit further north in Grant Park in 1978 , the new structure retained the Petrillo name . In the early 2000s decade , the Petrillo family said naming the new music shell in Millennium Park after Jay Pritzker ignored Petrillo 's legacy , and threatened legal action . As of 2009 , the Petrillo Music Shell was still in use , though Chicago Tribune arts critic Howard Reich described it as " dilapidated " and " dismal " .
Controversies during construction involved escalating costs and delays ; both the pavilion and park opened four years later than originally planned and cost millions of dollars more than expected .
Once the pavilion was built , the initial plan was that the lawn seating would be free for all events . An early brochure for the Grant Park Music Festival said " You never need a ticket to attend a concert ! The lawn and the general seating section are always admission free . " However , when parking revenue fell short of estimates during the first year , the city charged $ 10 for lawn seating at the August 31 , 2005 , concert by Tori Amos . Amos , a classically trained musician who chose only piano and organ accompaniment for her concert , earned positive reviews as the inaugural rock and roll performer in a venue that regularly hosts classical music . The city justified the charge by contending that since the Pavilion is an open @-@ air venue , there were many places in Millennium Park , such as the Cloud Gate , Crown Fountain and Lurie Gardens , where one could have enjoyed the sounds or the atmosphere of the park without having to pay .
In addition to charging for lawn seating , the event promoters prohibited concertgoers from bringing beverages , including bottled water , to the lawn ; drinks instead had to be purchased onsite . The city later stated that confiscation of unopened beverage bottles was a mistake and that " Bottled water is always allowed at the free concerts we host at the park , and will be allowed at any future events as well . " An estimated 300 attendees set up blankets beyond the trellis system , where they could enjoy their own beverages while listening to the concert . The official Chicago policy is that alcohol is permitted throughout Jay Pritzker Pavilion during public performances , but cans and glass bottles are not permitted on the Great Lawn . During the concert , the Gehry @-@ designed BP Pedestrian Bridge that connects Millennium Park with Daley Bicentennial Plaza was closed until 7 : 00 a.m. the next day .
= = Events = =
Jay Pritzker Pavilion competes with Ravinia Park as a Chicago area outdoor music venue . The pavilion hosts free music events such as Chicago Gospel Music Festival from spring to fall . In June , July and August , the Grammy @-@ nominated Grant Park Orchestra and Chorus performs free classical concerts at the Grant Park Music Festival . The festival , a Chicago tradition since 1931 , remains the nation 's only free , outdoor classical music series . Although the Music Festival shares pavilion space with several other program series and annual performances , its concerts most Wednesday , Friday and Saturday evenings throughout the heart of the summer are the core of the pavilion 's offerings . Travel guide Frommer 's lists the park , pavilion , and these free concerts as some of the best free things to do in Chicago . In summer the pavilion also hosts a series of jazz concerts , and the Great Lawn hosts yoga and pilates workouts on Saturday mornings .
The Pritzker Prize presentation ceremony , which moves to an architecturally significant location each year , was held in the Pritzker Pavilion in April 2005 . Among the annual performers at the pavilion are Steppenwolf Theatre , Lyric Opera of Chicago and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra ( CSO ) . At the end of the Grant Park Music Festival season in August , the Festival 's Grant Park Orchestra and Carlos Kalmar presented Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning composer John Adams ' On the Transmigration of Souls , which was written at the request of the New York Philharmonic to honor the victims of the September 11 attacks . On Sunday September 11 , 2005 , United States Senator Barack Obama ( who was later elected President of the United States ) served as guest narrator for a 9 / 11 tribute concert by the CSO . The focal work of the concert was Aaron Copland 's " Lincoln Portrait " and the concert was led by former CSO resident conductor William Eddins .
Although it was built as a replacement for Grant Park 's outdoor concert facilities , larger annual events such as the Chicago Blues and Chicago Jazz Festivals and Taste of Chicago are too large for Jay Pritzker Pavilion and continue to be held in and around Petrillo Music Shell . The pavilion has hosted smaller festivals , such as the Chicago Gospel Music Festival , since 2005 . Public opinion has been in favor of moving some of the smaller Blues and Jazz festival events to the pavilion , with its better , more modern acoustics . By 2009 , as the city grappled with a budget deficit , it considered realigning parts of the larger festivals and made definite plans to move some of the smaller ones to the more modern venue .
On July 18 , 2007 , the Grant Park Music Festival partnered with the Metro Chicago to produce a free Wednesday @-@ night show celebrating Metro 's 25th anniversary and featuring indie band The Decemberists with the Grant Park Orchestra . The show featured new orchestral arrangements of The Decemberists ' songs by Sean O 'Loughlin , who also conducted in lieu of Kalmar . While the concert was free , the front seating sections were reserved for season membership holders ; fans of the band got the remaining seats or sat on the lawn . This led Decemberists ' frontman Colin Meloy to encourage the crowd to breach the barriers between the seats and Great Lawn to get closer to the stage for the band 's encore performance , which was without the orchestra . Estimated attendance was 11 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 , the largest for any free concert at the pavilion to date .
Other events include a concert by Wilco on September 12 , 2007 , the " Poland for Chicago " show with Polish President Lech Kaczyński on September 25 , 2007 , and a global warming awareness festival which culminated in a performance entitled Arctic at the pavilion in November 2007 . Most events at the pavilion remain free ; the only public event at the pavilion in the summer of 2008 that charged admission was a concert by Rogue Wave and Death Cab for Cutie on June 3 . The pavilion has hosted several one @-@ day events that were noted in international publications , including the United States debut of A Throw of Dice , a 1929 Indian silent movie about two kings with a common love interest , on July 30 , 2008 . At the debut , Nitin Sawhney and the Grant Park Orchestra accompanied the movie with a live performance . Oprah Winfrey filmed the September 8 , 2008 , season @-@ opening Oprah Winfrey Show on September 3 , 2008 , at the pavilion with more than 150 Olympic medalists , including Michael Phelps , Nastia Liukin , Dara Torres , Kobe Bryant , Misty May @-@ Treanor and Kerri Walsh , in an effort to rally support for the Chicago 2016 Olympic bid .
Concerts performed by the Grant Park Orchestra and directed by Kalmar were part of a June 19 , 2009 , citywide Burnham Plan centennial celebration that included the unveiling of the Burnham Pavilion elsewhere in the park . The concert featured the world premiere of Michael Torke 's work for symphony and chorus entitled Plans , paired with Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No. 3 . Also , the pavilion serves as host to the annual Chicago Winter Dance Festival . During the festival there is a month of free dance instructions behind the glass doors of the pavilion stage and free skating instruction at the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink .
Among the highlights of the 2010 calendar is the screening of the BBC 's nature documentary Planet Earth Live on July 21 , with live Grant Park Symphony Orchestra accompaniment featuring the score by five @-@ time Academy Award @-@ nominated composer George Fenton , who serves as conductor .
Among the artists who performed with the festival at the pavilion in the 2000s decade are sopranos Karina Gauvin and Erin Wall , tenor Vittorio Grigolo , pianist Stephen Hough , violinists Rachel Barton Pine , James Ehnes , Roby Lakatos , Christian Tetzlaff , and Pinchas Zukerman , and vocalists Otis Clay , Mariza , and Maria del Mar Bonet . All rehearsals at the pavilion are open to the public and well @-@ attended . The festival is represented by a staff of trained guides , called docents , that field questions and provide educational talks during the rehearsals .
Besides these public functions , the pavilion is available , as is the entire park , as a venue for private events year @-@ round . The stage 's glass and steel doors enable it to provide indoor space protected from the elements when necessary . In addition , the pavilion has a Choral Rehearsal Room that can be rented .
= = Reception = =
Critics have said that Jay Pritzker Pavilion is the highlight of Millennium Park . Fodor 's travel guide described it as the park 's " showstopper " and " stunning " , praising its stainless steel and sound system , as well as the variety of events it hosts . Time called the pavilion " dynamic " and recommended it as one of two must @-@ see attractions in the park , while one New York Times writer found herself standing " agog " at what appeared to her to be a " celestial gateway to another universe " and a frame for the sky . Lonely Planet travel guide called the pavilion the anchor of the park , and the 2004 Year in Review issue of Time described it as the park 's crown jewel . USA Today described the bandshell as a landmark and the centerpiece of Millennium Park . Another critic described the pavilion as the " most spectacular structure to go up in early @-@ twenty @-@ first @-@ century Chicago " .
According to the Financial Times , the bandshell 's acoustics are unparalleled compared to any contemporary outdoor venue . Critics say that musicians have lauded the onstage acoustics . Another Financial Times critic noted that Gehry revisited some of his past design motifs , such as his use of stainless steel , and explored new ones such as the trellis and sound system . This sentiment was echoed by others . During the opening concert von Rhein noted that the sound is not of uniform quality throughout the venue and opined that the optimal sonics are toward the back of the seated area and front of the lawn . However , he subsequently noted in 2005 " the system has been fine @-@ tuned over the past two summers and now delivers a warm , even approximation of concert @-@ hall sound to listeners at even the farthest reaches of the lawn .
Despite the praise it has received , the pavilion has its blemishes : the supporting north side of the structure along Randolph Street has attracted criticism for not being pleasing to the eye , and some observers found the exposed supporting proscenium braces offensive . Critic Fred Bernstein of The New York Times felt that the smooth rounded trellis and sharp @-@ edged bandshell were geometrically discordant . A review in the Chicago Tribune criticized the " ugly concrete structure " surrounding the mixing console in the midst of the fixed seats as the pavilion 's " biggest design miscalculation " , and called for it be moved . Although modern practice is to locate the sound console in with the audience , Gehry said at a symposium after the park 's opening that he wanted " to scrap the big box of a sound booth that sprang up like a weed in the center of the pavilion 's seating " . The director of Millennium Park was honored for his contribution to creating " one of the most accessible parks – not just in the United States but possibly the world " in a 2005 accessibility award ceremony held at the pavilion . The pavilion 's stage is reached by gently sloped ramps instead of stairs , as part of the park 's overall accessibility design . The decision to save money and not slope the Great Lawn as much as originally planned was not universally popular . However , Gehry said that the actual slope of the lawn was more accommodating to people with disabilities and better able to accommodate activities than the original plan .
= = Position in Chicago 's skyline = =
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= Didsbury =
Didsbury / ˈdɪdzbəri / is a suburban area of Manchester , England . It lies on the north bank of the River Mersey , 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) south of Manchester city centre . The population at the 2011 census was 26 @,@ 788 .
Historically a part of Lancashire , there are records of Didsbury existing as a small hamlet as early as the 13th century . Its early history was dominated by being part of the Manor of Withington , a feudal estate that covered a large part of what is now the south of Manchester . Didsbury was described during the 18th century as a township separate from outside influence . In 1745 Charles Edward Stuart crossed the Mersey at Didsbury in the Jacobite march south from Manchester to Derby , and again in the subsequent retreat .
Didsbury was largely rural until the mid @-@ 19th century , when it underwent development and urbanisation during the Industrial Revolution . It became part of Manchester in 1904 .
The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was formed in Didsbury in 1889 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Didsbury derives its name from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Dyddi 's burg , probably referring to a man known as Dyddi whose stronghold or township it was on a low cliff overlooking a place where the river Mersey could be forded . In the 13th century Didsbury was variously referred to as Dydesbyre , Dydesbiri , Didsbury , or Dodesbury .
= = = Parish Church = = =
A charter granted in about 1260 shows that a corn @-@ grinding mill was operating in Didsbury , along the River Mersey , but the earliest reference to Didsbury is in a document dating from 1235 , recording a grant of land for the building of a chapel . The church was named St James Church in 1855 . It underwent major refurbishment in 1620 and again in the 19th century , although most of the stonework visible today dates from the 17th century . A parsonage was built next to one of the two public houses that flanked the nearby village green , Ye Olde Cock Inn , so @-@ called because of the cockfighting that used to take place there . The parsonage soon gained a reputation for being haunted ; servants refused to sleep on the premises , and it was abandoned in 1850 . Local alderman Fletcher Moss bought the house in 1865 , and lived in it for more than 40 years . In 1902 , he installed wrought iron gates at the entrance to the parsonage 's garden , which , because of the building 's reputation , became known locally as " the gates to Hell " . The parsonage became a museum , now closed , but the gardens are still open to the public . The area around St James Church has the highest concentration of listed buildings in Manchester , outside the city centre .
= = = River Mersey = = =
Didsbury was one of the few places between Stretford and Stockport where the River Mersey could be forded , which made it significant for troop movements during the English Civil War , in which Manchester was on the Parliamentarian side . The Royalist commander , Prince Rupert , stationed himself at Didsbury Ees , to the south of Barlow Moor . It is also likely that Bonnie Prince Charlie crossed the Mersey at Didsbury in 1745 , in the Jacobite march south from Manchester to Derby , and again in his subsequent retreat .
= = = Immigration from Europe = = =
Jewish immigrants started to arrive in Manchester from the late 18th century , initially settling mainly in the suburbs to the north of the city . From the 1890s onwards , many of them moved to what were seen as the more " sophisticated " suburbs in the south , such as Withington and Didsbury . The influx of Jewish immigrants led to West Didsbury being nicknamed " Yidsbury " and Palatine Road , a main road through West Didsbury , " Palestine Road " .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
During the Victorian expansion of Manchester , Didsbury developed as a prosperous settlement ; a few mansions from the period still exist on Wilmslow Road between Didsbury Village and Parrs Wood to the east and Withington to the north , but they have now been converted to nursing homes and offices . The opening of the Midland Railway line in 1880 contributed greatly to the rapid growth in the population of Didsbury , with stations at Didsbury and Withington and West Didsbury offering easy rail connections to Manchester Central . The line closed in 1967 , although Didsbury station building remained standing until its demolition in the 1980s . The station clock and water fountain have survived , dedicated to local doctor and campaigner for the poor , Dr. J. Milson Rhodes .
On 28 April 1910 , French pilot Louis Paulhan landed his Farman biplane in Barcicroft Fields , Pytha Fold Farm , on the borders of Withington , Burnage and Didsbury , at the end of the first flight from London to Manchester in under 24 hours , with one short overnight stop at Lichfield . Arriving at 5 : 30 am , Paulhan beat the British contender , Claude Grahame @-@ White , winning a £ 10 @,@ 000 prize offered by the Daily Mail . This was the first powered flight into Manchester from any point outside the city . Two special trains were chartered to the newly built but unopened Burnage Station to take spectators to the landing , many of whom had stood throughout the night . Paulhan 's progress was followed throughout by a special train carrying his wife , Henri Farman and his mechanics . Afterwards his train took the party to a civic reception given by the Lord Mayor of Manchester in the Town Hall . A house in Paulhan Road , constructed in the 1930s near the site of his landing , is marked by a blue plaque to commemorate his achievement .
= = Governance = =
= = = Civic history = = =
In the early 13th century , Didsbury lay within the manor of Withington , a feudal estate that also included the townships of Withington , Chorlton @-@ cum @-@ Hardy , Moss Side , Rusholme , Burnage , Denton and Haughton , ruled by the Hathersage , Longford and Tatton families , and within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire . Didsbury remained within the manor of Withington for several centuries .
By 1764 , Didsbury was described as a township in its own right . It became a civil parish in 1866 , and in 1876 was incorporated into the Withington Urban Sanitary District , superseded in 1894 by the creation of Withington Urban District . Withington Urban District was a subdivision of the administrative county of Lancashire , created as part of the provisions of the Local Government Act 1894 . In 1904 , Withington Urban District was amalgamated into the city and county borough of Manchester , and so Didsbury was absorbed into Manchester , although it remained a civil parish until 1910 . Following the Local Government Act 1972 , Manchester became a metropolitan borough of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
= = = Political representation = = =
Didsbury is in the parliamentary constituency of Manchester Withington , and is represented by Jeff Smith MP , a member of the Labour Party .
Until 2004 , most of the area formed the Didsbury ward of Manchester City Council with a section of West Didsbury contained within the Barlow Moor ward . However , boundary changes in 2004 resulted in Didsbury being split mainly between the two new wards of Didsbury East and Didsbury West while a small section of West Didsbury was incorporated into the new ward of Chorlton Park . Didsbury East is represented by Labour councillors James Wilson , Bridie Adams and Andrew Simcock . Didsbury West is represented by Labour councllors Josie Teuber and David Ellison and Liberal Democrat John Leech . All wards within Manchester elect in thirds on a four yearly cycle .
= = Geography = =
Didsbury , at 53 ° 24 ′ 59 ″ N 2 ° 13 ′ 51 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 4166 , − 2 @.@ 2311 ) , is south of the midpoint of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) south of Manchester city centre . To the north , Didsbury is bordered by Withington , Chorlton @-@ cum @-@ Hardy and Burnage , to the west by Northenden , to the east and south @-@ east by Heaton Mersey and Cheadle , and by Gatley to the south .
The River Mersey forms Didsbury 's southern and southwestern boundaries and certain stretches of the river also demarcate the boundaries of the City of Manchester . The area is generally considered to be roughly enclosed by Princess Parkway to the west , Kingsway to the east and the Ball Brook , just north of Lapwing Lane / Fog Lane to the north . This northern boundary is marked by a boundary stone in the front garden wall of a house on the west side of Wilmslow Road . A " country trail " passes from West Didsbury to East , named the Trans Pennine Trail ( National Cycle Route 62 ) . It was sited along a disused railway track , as part of a nationwide initiative to promote cycling .
Didsbury 's built environment has developed around the areas of East Didsbury , West Didsbury , and Didsbury Village , which separates the two . The Albert Park conservation area , covering much of West Didsbury , places planning restrictions on development , alterations to buildings , and pruning of trees . The areas adjacent to the Mersey lie within the river 's flood plain , and so have historically been prone to flooding after heavy rainfall . The last major flooding was in the late 1960s . In the 1970s extensive flood mitigation work carried out along the Mersey Valley through Manchester has helped to speed up the passage of floodwater . Fletcher Moss Botanical Garden also acts as an emergency flood basin , storing floodwater until it can be safely released back into the river .
= = Demography = =
The United Kingdom Census 2001 recorded Didsbury as having a population of 14 @,@ 292 , of whom 87 % were born in the United Kingdom . A large majority of residents , 88 % , identified themselves as white , 8 % as Asian , 2 % as mixed ethnicity , 1 % black , and 1 % Chinese or other ethnic group . The under @-@ 16s accounted for 17 % of the population , and the over @-@ 65s for 15 % . The population density in 2001 was 5 @,@ 276 / square mile ( 2 @,@ 037 / km ² ) .
= = Economy = =
As of the UK 's 2001 census , Didsbury had an estimated workforce of 10 @,@ 755 or 75 % of the population . Economic status in Didsbury was : 48 % in full @-@ time employment , 11 % retired , 10 % self @-@ employed , 8 % in part @-@ time employment , 4 % full @-@ time student ( without job ) , 4 % housewife / husband or carer , 4 % permanently sick or disabled , 4 % unemployed , and 2 % economically inactive for unstated reasons . Didsbury 's 48 % rate of full @-@ time employment compares with 33 % in Manchester and 41 % across the whole of England . The area 's 4 % unemployment rate is in contrast to Manchester 's rate of 9 % , and broadly in line with the 5 % rate of unemployment for England .
In 2001 , the main industries of employment in Didsbury were 20 % property and business services , 15 % education , 15 % health and social work , 10 % retail and wholesale , 9 % manufacturing , 6 % transport and communications , 5 % financial services , 4 % hotels and restaurants , 4 % construction , 4 % public administration and defence , and 8 % other . These figures were similar to those from surrounding areas , but Didsbury did have a relatively larger education sector than other nearby wards , perhaps explained by the high density of schools in the area . A significant number of people ( 12 % ) commute to areas outside Didsbury ; at the 2001 census there were 6 @,@ 555 jobs in Didsbury , compared with the 7 @,@ 417 employed residents .
Siemens occupies the Sir William Siemens House in West Didsbury and in 2009 employed 800 people . The head office of BA CityFlyer is in Didsbury . British Airways has an office with 300 employees in Pioneer House on the 292 @,@ 000 square feet ( 27 @,@ 100 m2 ) , Dutch owned Towers Business Park . In 2005 , other tenants of the business park included Cisco , Logica , Regus , Trinity Integrated Systems limited , and Thorn Lighting .
Didsbury is considered to form a " stockbroker belt " , as it is Manchester 's most affluent suburb .
= = Culture = =
The original site of Didsbury Village is in the conservation area now known as Didsbury St James , about half a mile ( 1 km ) to the south of what is today 's village centre .
The traditional independent retailers are gradually being replaced by multi @-@ national firms , raising fears that Didsbury may lose its individual identity and become a " clone town " . However , independent traders continue to thrive , especially in West Didsbury , which celebrates its independent spirit each year with the two @-@ day Westfest festival . The 200 @-@ year @-@ old Peacock 's Funeral Parlour , one of the few pre @-@ Victorian buildings in the village and regarded by some as the centrepiece of the village , was demolished in the summer of 2005 to make way for a new branch of Boots the Chemists . The owner , United Co @-@ op , blamed changing demographics for the closure of the funeral parlour ; with more and more homes being occupied by young professional people , the death rate was falling in the area .
= = = Green areas = = =
The Fletcher Moss Botanical Garden is a 21 @-@ acre ( 85 @,@ 000 m2 ) recreational park south of the village centre . It is named after local Alderman Fletcher Moss , who donated the park to the city of Manchester in 1919 . In 2008 , it won the Green Flag Award , the national standard for parks and green spaces in England , an award it has held since 2000 .
Didsbury Park was also a winner of the Green Flag Award in 2008 . It is a community park in Didsbury village centre that comprises a bowls area , crèche , football pitch and play area . Once a year , at the Didsbury Festival , pupils from local schools dress up to a theme and meet in the playground of St. Catherine 's Primary School , in East Didsbury , from where they parade to Didsbury Park .
Marie Louise Gardens is a relatively small park to the west of the centre of Didsbury . The park was originally owned by the Silkenstadt family as part of the grounds of their house . The land was bequeathed to the people of Manchester by Mrs Silkenstadt in 1904 in memory of her daughter , Marie Louise . The park was at the centre of controversy in 2007 after Manchester City Council proposed to sell a portion of it to a private property developer .
= = Media = =
Between 1956 and 1969 , the old Capitol Theatre at the junction of Parrs Wood Road and School Lane served as the northern studios of ITV station ABC Weekend Television . Early episodes of The Avengers and programmes such as Opportunity Knocks were made in the studios . ABC ceased to use the site in 1968 when it lost its ITV franchise , on its merger with fellow ITV company Rediffusion . The site was then used briefly by Yorkshire Television until its own facilities in Leeds were ready . In 1971 , the studios were acquired by Manchester Polytechnic , who used it for cinema , television studies and theatre . The building was demolished in the late 1990s to make way for a residential development , but the name lives on in the form of a new theatre space in the heart of the M.M.U. campus in the All Saints area along Oxford Road , just to the south of Manchester city centre .
Until 2009 Didsbury was the base for one of the Manchester Evening News subsidiaries , the South Manchester Reporter .
= = Transport = =
Didsbury is close to junction 5 of Manchester 's ring road , the M60 motorway . Manchester Airport , the busiest airport in the UK outside London , is about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km ) to the south .
Didsbury is served by several bus routes into Manchester city centre , The Trafford Centre , Northenden , and other destinations . Wilmslow Road provides Didsbury with a regular bus service due to the strong demand for travel by students along the corridor . The service is cheap and passengers rarely have to wait more than a couple of minutes . According to some analysts , Wilmslow Road is the busiest bus corridor in Europe .
East Didsbury and Burnage are the nearest railway stations , on the line between Manchester Piccadilly and Manchester Airport . Between 1880 and 1967 the area had been served by two other railway stations , Didsbury station and West Didsbury station , both on the South Manchester lines into Manchester Central station . The entire line was shut in 1967 following the Beeching Axe .
= = = Metrolink = = =
Proposals had existed since the 1980s to re @-@ open the disused railway line which passes through Didsbury as part of the Manchester Metrolink light rail system . Under these proposals , Didsbury Station was to re @-@ open under the name of Didsbury Central or Didsbury Village .
These extension plans were rejected by the government in 2004 , due to escalating costs . New plans were drawn up in 2007 , with at least some of the money required for the construction of the line planned to come from the proposed Manchester Congestion Charge , which was overwhelmingly rejected by public vote in 2008 .
In May 2009 , AGMA agreed to the provision of additional funding that secured the construction of Metrolink to the area . This included additional stops at Withington , Burton Road , West Didsbury , Didsbury Village and East Didsbury .
Final government approval for government funding for the Chorlton cum Hardy – East Didsbury Metrolink extension using a closed railway line was granted in March 2010 by Transport Minister Sadiq Khan . The line through to East Didsbury opened on 23 May 2013 .
= = Education = =
Didsbury has a non @-@ selective education system , assessed by the SATs exam . There are seven primary schools and two state comprehensive secondary schools . The Barlow RC High School is one of those chosen by Manchester Council to benefit from funding made available in wave 4 of the government 's Building Schools for the Future programme , a national scheme for the refurbishment and remodelling of every secondary school in England . It is planned to replace all the current buildings , which date back to 1951 . Parrs Wood and The Barlow were two of only six schools in Manchester to achieve the Manchester Inclusion Standard in 2007 , awarded by Manchester Council to those schools doing innovative work to ensure that all their pupils are able to participate fully in the school ’ s activities .
There are two centres of further and higher education in Didsbury : The Manchester College , ( formerly City College Manchester ) Fielden Campus , which was opened in 1972 by Margaret Thatcher , offers a variety of courses including communication and technology ; and Manchester Metropolitan University 's Didsbury Campus , the former Didsbury School of Education , is home to the faculties of health , social care , and education , along with the Broomhurst Hall of Residence .
= = = Primary schools = = =
Beaver Road Primary School
Didsbury C.E. Primary School ]
West Didsbury C.E. Primary School
St Catherine 's R.C. Primary School
Cavendish Community Primary School
Ewing School
Broad Oak Primary School
Moor Allerton Preparatory School
= = = Secondary schools = = =
Parrs Wood High School
Barlow R.C. High School
Parrs Wood , with about 2 @,@ 000 pupils on its register , is much larger than the average , and is regularly over @-@ subscribed in Year 7 . In its 2007 inspection report by the Office for Standards in Education , Children 's Services and Skills ( Ofsted ) the school was criticised for " failing to give its students an acceptable standard of education " , and for providing " unsatisfactory " value for money . However , in 2012 it came out of special measures and Ofsted deemed it a " satisfactory " school with aspects of " good teaching " and " good management " . The Barlow RC High School is an average size secondary school , with about 1 @,@ 000 pupils . It too is regularly over @-@ subscribed . It was described in its October 2003 Ofsted report as " a successful and effective school that is providing a good education for its pupils " .
= = Religion = =
It is uncertain when the first chapel was built in Didsbury , but it is thought to have been before the middle of the 13th century . When the plague reached the village in 1352 the chapel yard was consecrated to provide a cemetery for the victims , it being " inconvenient to carry the dead all the way to Manchester " .
The BBC Radio 4 Daily Service programme of Christian worship – the world 's oldest continuous radio programme – is often broadcast from Emmanuel Church , on Barlow Moor Road . Two of Didsbury 's religious buildings are Grade II listed : Didsbury Methodist Church of St Paul , and the Nazarene Theological College .
Didsbury is in the Church of England Diocese of Manchester , and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford . It is not as religiously diverse as some other areas of Manchester , but it has the second largest Jewish population in the borough and two synagogues : the Shaare Hayim Synagogue and the Sha 'are Sedek Synagogue .
Didsbury has a medium @-@ sized Muslim population in comparison with areas such as Rusholme , Longsight and Levenshulme ; a converted church in West Didsbury houses the Didsbury Mosque and Islamic Centre .
= = Sports = =
Didsbury Sports Centre , on Wilmslow Road , is a part of the Manchester Metropolitan University campus . It provides a fitness suite and classes and facilities for badminton and tennis .
Didsbury has two rugby union clubs , Toc H R.F.C. and Old Bedians . Toc H , founded in 1924 , plays at Simons Fields , on Ford Lane . Its first team plays in the North Lancashire and Cumbria league . The club runs four senior teams and a youth section , and has run a 10 @-@ a @-@ side competition every May since 1951 , as a charity fund raiser for local hospices . Old Bedians is based in East Didbury , and was founded in 1954 . It regularly fields three senior teams as well as a junior section . Desmond Pastore , believed to be the oldest rugby player in the world , was a founder member of the club , and later became its president . Formerly a player for Sale and Cheshire , Desmond played his last game for Manchester club Egor on his 91st birthday . Bedians AFC ( an amateur football club founded in 1928 ) share the Underbank Farm ground with Old Bedians RUFC .
Didsbury Cricket Club fields three Saturday teams and two Sunday teams . The first eleven plays in the Cheshire County ECB Premier League . As well as the five senior teams , the club also has a junior section catering for players between 7 and 18 years of age , and has recently formed a Women 's section . It is also home to Manchester Waconians Lacrosse Club and Didsbury Grey 's Women 's Hockey Team , which do not actually play at the site but at grounds in Belle Vue , that were designed for the XVII Commonwealth Games . Northern Tennis Club , in West Didsbury , is one of Manchester 's few racquet clubs ; it annually plays host to an Association of Tennis Professionals tournament in July .
= = Public services = =
Withington Community Hospital , opened in 2005 , occupies part of the site of the former ( and much larger ) Withington Hospital , developed on the site of a workhouse some of whose buildings are still evident .
Didsbury is covered by the South Manchester Division of Greater Manchester Police .
The Towers , now known as the Shirley Institute , was once the home of engineer Daniel Adamson – the driving force behind the Manchester Ship Canal project – and the venue where the decision to build the canal was taken . The house was designed by Salford architect Thomas Worthington , for the editor and proprietor of the Manchester Guardian , John Edward Taylor .
= = Notable people = =
Daniel Adamson , promoter of the Manchester Ship Canal , lived at The Towers ( blue plaque – once the Shirley Institute ) on Wilmslow Road from 1874 until his death in 1890 . His Grade II listed home , designed by Thomas Worthington for John Edward Taylor , the editor and proprietor of the Manchester Guardian , was the venue for the 1882 meeting at which it was decided to construct the Ship Canal project .
Emily Williamson , a pioneer of wildlife protection , was a resident of Didsbury from 1882 to 1912 . She founded the Plumage League in 1889 and went on to co @-@ found the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB ) in 1904 . In 1989 a plaque was placed on her former home , the Croft , to honour her work on the centenary of her organisation .
Sidney Bernstein and Denis Forman who created Granada Television Manchester also lived in Didsbury during their work requirements at the Granada Studios in Manchester .
Kirsty Howard was the final runner to carry the Queen 's Baton at the opening of the 2002 Commonwealth Games , when she was chaperoned by England football captain David Beckham . Born with a rare condition in which her heart is back @-@ to @-@ front , she has been a resident in Didsbury 's Francis House Hospice , for which she has raised over £ 5 million .
Lord Marcus Joseph Sieff , the chairman of Marks & Spencer from 1972 to 1982 , was born in Didsbury in 1913 .
Francis French , author and noted space historian , grew up in Didsbury , and attended the same school as noted poet and novelist Sophie Hannah .
Carol Ann Duffy , the first female Poet Laureate , lives in West Didsbury as of 2009 .
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= Rosemary Edna Sinclair =
Rosemary Edna Sinclair ( born 17 November 1936 ) , also known as Rosemary Fenton , is an Australian environmental and children 's rights activist . She is involved in administrative approach related to developmental actions . She won the title of Miss Australia in 1960 . She has held many key posts at Telecom Australia . In 2002 , she was represented on the Broadband Advisory Group of Federal Government and was also a delegate to the United Nations Special Session on Children ( New York ) . In November 1988 , in association with Christine Stewart , she founded the National Association for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect ( NAPCAN ) to fully address issues related to child abuse . She also works as the Managing Director of the Australian Telecommunications ( ATUG ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Rosemary Fenton was born on Lord Howe Island on 17 November 1936 . Her father , Stanley Fenton , worked as a radio operator at the Civil Aviation Department on the island . Her schooling until matriculation was at the Presbyterian Ladies ' College , Sydney , a boarding school . She also did a course in nursing . When her mother died in 1952 , she returned to Lord Howe Island to look after her father and two younger siblings , brother Stan and sister Robyn . While she had left the island to attend secondary school , she used to come home twice a year . Her paintings adorned the walls of her father 's house .
Sinclair wanted to compete for the Miss Australia beauty contest . As she lived on the island keeping house for her family , she stitched her own clothes on the basis of a catalog she had obtained from Sydney . She tried these clothes on her younger 12- year old sister Robyn as a model . She won the Miss Australia title in November 1960 and was very modest about winning the crown . She then went on a prize @-@ winning tour of Hong Kong , Tokyo , Honolulu , San Francisco , and many other places . Thereafter , she worked as a model .
She holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in Arts , Law , and Business and a Master 's Degree ( MA ) in Commerce .
= = Career = =
Sinclair took up the environmental cause of her birthplace , the Lord Howe Island , in 1982 , when it was listed as an UNESCO World Heritage Site . Though the islanders were pleased with the heritage status accorded to the island , Sinclair was unhappy with many of the planning and management actions initiated by the Government of Australia to conserve the newly accorded heritage status , as it affected the basic rights of the islanders . Her objections were to the cutting of pine trees planted in the 19th century ; she considered these trees ( though not indigenous ) as part of the island 's heritage . When the trees were being felled she threatened to lie down between the trees to stop the tree cutters . Her argument was that the trees added to the aesthetic beauty of the island . She also objected to the neglect of maintenance of embankments that were built to extend the airport on the island , as the embankments were eroding . She objected to the garbage that was being dumped in the lagoon of the island as it was causing health hazards . The management plan proposed by the government to preserve the island 's heritage status envisaged restricting the tourist accommodation to about 400 and limiting the number of cars on the island to 100 , which she objected for the reason that it was limiting the opportunities to the islanders who had lived there for many years . Another of her protests was on the creation of an aquatic reserve in a part of the island . She considered this action as detrimental to the fishing rights of the local people who had fished in the area for several years . All her objections resulted in the Ministry of Planning and Environment agreeing to address the issues she had raised . In 1967 , she worked in the Prime Minister 's Department and dealt with public relations and facilitated the Montreal Expo .
In 1980 , Sinclair became Managing Director of Australian Telecommunications Users Group ( ATUG ) , an NGO dedicated to protecting the rights of product users in Australia in the field of telecommunications .
= = Affiliations and memberships = =
Some of the key executive posts Sinclair has held are in the Telecom Australia as ; " National General Manager – Communications Industry Accounts ; Director , Strategic Development at the ABC ; and as Director , Education , New Media and Export at Scholastic Australia . " In 2002 , she was represented on the Federal Government 's " Broadband Advisory Group " . She is also a member of the Government 's " Australian Communications Industry Forum ( ACIF ) , the Australian Telework Advisory Committee ( ATAC ) , Teleworking Task Force , the National ICT Industry Alliance " and the Working Group of the Broadband for Health Program .
Sinclair is a represented on the " International Telecommunications Working Group ( INTUG ) Executive Committee " . She is the Vice Chairman of INTUG Asia @-@ Pacific Region .
In 1976 , Sinclair took up the cause of child abuse and since then she has pursued the issue with dedication , even though she has been criticized for not raising the issues related to women in general outside the limits of the house . On child abuse her refrain is : " But there are no political boundaries for child abuse . It knows no socio @-@ economic boundaries , either . There is an increasing community awareness of its cost to children and to society as a whole – and that something can be done . "
= = Personal life = =
She married Ian Sinclair on Valentine 's Day 1970 ; he later became the Deputy leader of the Federal opposition and leader of the National Party of Australia . She was Ian 's second wife and " inherited " his first wife 's three children aged 8 to 12 . In 1972 , she and Ian Sinclair had a son , Andrew .
She has authored many cookbooks .
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= Moltke @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Moltke class was a class of two " all @-@ big @-@ gun " battlecruisers of the German Imperial Navy built between 1909 – 1911 . Named SMS Moltke and SMS Goeben , they were similar to the previous Von der Tann unique battlecruiser , but the newer design featured several incremental improvements . The Moltkes were slightly larger , faster , and better armored , and had an additional pair of 28 centimeter guns .
Both ships served during World War I. Moltke participated in several major battles with the rest of the High Seas Fleet , including the battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland in the North Sea , and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga and Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea . At the end of the war , Moltke was interned with the majority of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow while the ships ' fate was being discussed during peace treaty negotiations . The ships were scuttled on 21 June 1919 to prevent their seizure by the Allies .
Goeben was stationed in the Mediterranean at the start of the war ; she escaped from pursuing Royal Navy ships to Constantinople . The ship , along with the light cruiser Breslau , was transferred to the Ottoman Navy soon after arrival . Strategically , Goeben played a very important role : she helped bring the Ottoman Empire into the war as a member of the Central Powers , and by acting as a fleet in being the ship prevented Anglo @-@ French attempts to force the Bosporus , and similarly stymied a possible advance by the Russian Black Sea Fleet . Goeben was retained by the new Turkish government after the war . Only slightly modified from her original configuration , the ship remained on active service with the Turkish Navy until being decommissioned on 20 December 1950 ; she was stricken from the Navy register on 14 November 1954 . Two years earlier , when Turkey joined NATO in 1952 , the ship was assigned the hull number B70 . The ship was unsuccessfully offered for sale to the West German government in 1963 . Without a group willing to preserve her as a museum , the ship was sold to M.K.E. Seyman in 1971 for scrapping . She was towed to the breakers on 7 June 1973 , and the work was completed in February 1976 .
= = Development = =
During a May 1907 conference , the German Naval Office decided to follow up the Von der Tann unique battlecruiser with an enlarged design . The 44 million marks allocated for the 1908 fiscal year created the possibility of increasing the size of the main guns from the 28 cm ( 11 in ) weapons of the preceding design to 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) . However , Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , along with the Construction Department , argued that increasing the number of guns from 8 to 10 would be preferable , as the 28 cm guns had been deemed sufficient to engage even battleships . Tirpitz also argued that , given the numerical superiority of the Royal Navy 's reconnaissance forces , it would be more prudent to increase the number of main guns , rather than increase their caliber . The General Navy Department held that for the new design to fight in the battle line , 30 @.@ 5 cm guns were necessary . Ultimately , Tirpitz and the Construction Department won the debate , and Moltke was to be equipped with ten 28 cm guns . It was also mandated by the Construction Department that the new ships have armor protection equal or superior to Von der Tann 's and a top speed of at least 24 @.@ 5 knots ( 45 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
During the design process , there were many weight increases due to growth in the size of the citadel , armor thickness , additions to the ammunition stores , and the rearrangement of the boiler system . It was originally planned to build only one ship of the new design , but due to the strains being put on the Navy design staff , it was decided to build two ships of the new type . They were assigned under the contract names of " Cruiser G " and " Cruiser H " . As Blohm & Voss made the lowest bid for " Cruiser G " , the company also secured the contract for " Cruiser H " . The former was assigned to the 1908 – 09 building year , while the latter was assigned to 1909 – 10 .
The contract for " Cruiser G " was awarded on 17 September 1908 , under building number 200 . The keel was laid on 7 December 1908 , and the ship was launched on 7 April 1910 . " Cruiser G " was commissioned on 30 September 1911 as SMS Moltke . The ship 's namesake was Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke , the Chief of Staff of the Prussian Army in the mid 19th century . " Cruiser H " was ordered on 8 April 1909 with the building number 201 . The ship 's keel was laid on 12 August 1909 ; the hull was launched on 28 March 1911 . After fitting @-@ out , " Cruiser H " was commissioned on 2 July 1912 as SMS Goeben . The ship was named for August Karl von Goeben , a Prussian general who served during the Franco @-@ Prussian War .
= = = Ships = = =
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Moltke @-@ class ships were 186 @.@ 6 m ( 612 ft 2 in ) long overall , 29 @.@ 4 m ( 96 ft 5 in ) wide , and had a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) fully loaded . The ships displaced 22 @,@ 979 t ( 22 @,@ 616 long tons ) normally , and 25 @,@ 400 t ( 24 @,@ 999 long tons ) fully loaded . The Moltke @-@ class ships had 15 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 78 % of the keel of the ships . They were considered to handle well , with gentle movement even in heavy seas . However , they were slow to answer the helm and were not particularly maneuverable . The ships lost up to 60 % speed and heeled 9 degrees at full rudder . The ships had a standard crew of 43 officers and 1010 men . While Moltke served as the I Scouting Squadron flagship , she was manned by an additional 13 officers and 62 men . While serving as the second command flagship , the ship carried an additional 3 officers and 25 men to the standard complement .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Moltke and Goeben were powered by four @-@ shaft Parsons turbines in two sets and 24 coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers , divided into four boiler rooms . The boilers were composed of one steam drum and three water drums apiece , and produced steam at 16 standard atmospheres ( 240 psi ) . After 1916 , the boilers were supplemented with tar @-@ oil . The Parsons turbines were divided into high- and low @-@ pressure pairs . The low @-@ pressure turbines were the inner pair , and were placed in the aft engine room . The high @-@ pressure turbines were on either side of the low @-@ pressure pair , and were located in the forward wing rooms . The turbines powered four propellers , 3 @.@ 74 m ( 12 @.@ 3 ft ) in diameter .
The ships ' power @-@ plants delivered a rated 51 @,@ 289 shaft horsepower ( 38 @,@ 246 kW ) and a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) . However , in trials Moltke attained 84 @,@ 609 shp ( 63 @,@ 093 kW ) and a top speed of 28 @.@ 4 knots ( 52 @.@ 6 km / h ; 32 @.@ 7 mph ) ; Goeben 's power @-@ plant produced only a slightly lower horsepower and top speed . At 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , the ships had a range of 4 @,@ 120 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 630 km ; 4 @,@ 740 mi ) . The Moltke @-@ class ships were equipped with 6 turbo generators that delivered 1 @,@ 200 kW ( 1 @,@ 600 hp ) of power at 225 volts . The ships were designed to carry 1 @,@ 000 tons of coal , although in practice they could store up to 3 @,@ 100 tons . Fuel consumption on the six @-@ hour forced trial was 0 @.@ 667 kilogram per horsepower / hour at 75 @,@ 744 shp ( 56 @,@ 482 kW ) , and .712 kg per hp / hr at 70 @,@ 300 shp ( 52 @,@ 400 kW ) , respectively for the two ships .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament was ten 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 50 guns in five twin turrets . The guns were placed in Drh.L C / 1908 turret mounts ; these mountings allowed a maximum elevation of 13 @.@ 5 degrees . This elevation was 7 @.@ 5 degrees less than in the preceding Von der Tann , and , as a consequence , the range was slightly shorter , at 18 @,@ 100 m ( 19 @,@ 800 yd ) , than the 18 @,@ 900 m ( 20 @,@ 700 yd ) of Von der Tann 's guns . In 1916 , during a refit , the elevation was increased to 16 degrees , for an increased range of 19 @,@ 100 m ( 20 @,@ 900 yd ) . One turret , Anton , was located fore , two aft ( Dora turret superfiring over Emil ) , and two , Bruno and Cäsar , were wing turrets mounted en echelon . The guns fired armor @-@ piercing and semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing shells , which both weighed 302 kg ( 670 lb ) . The guns could fire at a rate of 3 rounds per minute , and had a muzzle velocity of 895 m / s ( 2 @,@ 940 ft / s ) . A total of 810 of these shells were stored aboard the ship .
The ships ' secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 cannon , mounted in the MPL C / 06 mounts as in Von der Tann . The guns had a total of 1800 shells , at 150 per gun . The 15 cm guns had a range of 13 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 800 yd ) at construction , although this was later extended to 18 @,@ 800 m ( 18 @,@ 373 yd ) . Initially , twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns were also fitted to defend the ships against torpedo boats and destroyers , but these were later removed , with the guns in the aft superstructure replaced with four 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak L / 45 guns .
Moltke and Goeben were also armed with four 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes ; one fore , one aft , and two on the broadside , with 11 torpedoes stored . The torpedoes were of the G / 7 model , which weighed 1 @,@ 365 kg ( 3 @,@ 010 lb ) and carried a warhead weighing 195 kg ( 430 lb ) . The torpedoes had a maximum range of 9 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 200 yd ) at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ) , and 4 @,@ 000 m ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) when set at 37 knots ( 69 km / h ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships were equipped with Krupp cemented armor . The level of armor protection for the Moltke class was increased from the Von der Tann design , to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in the forward main belt , 27 cm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) in the citadel , and 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The casemates were protected by 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) vertically and 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) on the roofs . The forward conning tower was protected by 35 cm ( 14 in ) , and the aft tower had 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of armor . The turrets had 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) on the face , 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) on the sides , and 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) on the roofs . The deck armor and sloping armor were both 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) , as was the torpedo bulkhead around the barbettes . The torpedo bulkhead was 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in other , less critical areas . As with Von der Tann , the armor was Krupp cemented and nickel steel .
= = Service history = =
= = = Moltke = = =
Moltke replaced the armored cruiser Roon in the I Scouting Group on 30 September 1911 . On 19 April 1912 , Moltke and light cruisers Stettin and Bremen departed Germany for a goodwill visit to the United States , and arrived on 30 May . In early July , Moltke escorted Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht to Russia . Once the ship returned , the commander of the I Scouting Group made Moltke his flagship — a role in which she served until Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper transferred his flag to the newer battlecruiser Seydlitz on 23 June 1914 .
Moltke participated in most of the major fleet actions conducted by the German Navy during the First World War , including the Battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland in the North Sea , and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga and Operation Albion in the Baltic . The ship took part in several operations to bombard the English coast , including the first raid on Yarmouth , the attack on the towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby , and the second raid on Yarmouth and Lowestoft . Moltke was damaged several times during the war : the ship was hit by heavy @-@ caliber gunfire at Jutland , and torpedoed twice by British submarines while on fleet advances .
Following the end of the war in 1918 , Moltke , together with most of the High Seas Fleet , was interned at Scapa Flow pending a decision by the Allies as to the fate of the fleet . The ship met her end when she was scuttled by her crew , along with the rest of the High Seas Fleet in 1919 to prevent them from being seized by the British Royal Navy . The wreck of Moltke was raised on 10 June 1927 , and scrapped at Rosyth from 1927 to 1929 .
= = = Goeben = = =
Following the outbreak of the First Balkan War in October 1912 , the German High Command decided to create a Mediterranean Division in an attempt to exert influence in the area . The new squadron consisted of Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau ; the two ships left Kiel on 4 November and arrived off Constantinople on 15 November . The ships visited several Mediterranean ports , including Venice , Pola , and Naples . The First Balkan War ended on 30 May 1913 , and there was some consideration given to withdrawing the pair to German waters . However , the conflict reignited less than a month later on 29 June , meaning the ships would have to remain in the area .
Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914 , Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon recognized the imminent outbreak of war , and so immediately sailed to Pola for repair work for Goeben . The ships were then ordered to steam to Constantinople . While en route , they were pursued by British forces , but Goeben and Breslau managed to evade them and reach Istanbul by 10 August 1914 . Goeben was transferred to the Ottoman Empire and renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm after Sultan Selim I. Popularly known as Yavûz , she was designated as the flagship of the Ottoman Navy , but she retained her German crew . Goeben , flying the Ottoman flag , bombarded the Russian port of Sevastopol , captured and sank a Russian minesweeper , and damaged a destroyer on 29 October 1914 . The Russian government responded by declaring war on the Ottoman Empire on 1 November ; Britain and France followed suit on 5 November . By acting as a fleet in being , Goeben effectively blocked a Russian advance into the Bosporus , and defended against a similar incursion of British and French pre @-@ dreadnoughts . More powerful British and French warships — which could have dealt with Goeben — could not be risked in the heavily mined and U @-@ boat patrolled Turkish waters .
In 1936 she was renamed TCG Yavûz and remained the flagship of the Turkish Navy until 1950 , although the ship was largely stationary in Izmit from 1948 . In 1952 , Turkey joined NATO , and the ship was assigned the hull number " B70 " . Yavûz was decommissioned on 20 December 1950 , and removed from the navy register on 14 November 1954 . The Turkish government attempted to preserve the ship as a museum , including an offer to West Germany to sell the ship back in 1963 , but none of the efforts were successful . Goeben was sold for scrapping in 1971 , and was eventually broken up between 1973 and 1976 — the last remaining ship of the Imperial German Navy .
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= Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë =
The Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë ( Albanian : Republika Autonome Shqipëtare e Korçës ) was an autonomous state established in 1916 , by the local French forces , after the city of Korçë fell under their control , during World War I and lasted till 1920 .
Due to developments in the Macedonian Front of World War I the city of Korçë came under French control ( 1916 – 20 ) . During this time 14 representatives of Korçë and French Colonel Descoins signed a protocol that proclaimed the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë under the military protection of the French army and with Themistokli Gërmenji as Prefect of Police .
The new authorities introduced Albanian as the official language and replaced Greek schools with Albanian ones , which were forbidden during the Greek administration of the city . There was also a French school in Korçë and one of its many students was Enver Hoxha , who was apprentice ( 1927 — 1930 ) and then teacher ( 1937 — 1939 ) . He would later become the First Secretary of the Albanian Party of Labour , serving from 1941 until his death in 1985 .
= = Background = =
The Republic of Korçë was established in 1916 during World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian army invaded northern Albania in the spring of 1916 , the Kingdom of Bulgaria 's army occupied the eastern parts of Albania , including the city of Elbassan ( which was later handed over to Austria @-@ Hungary ) . The French army occupied Korçë and its surrounding areas on November 29 , 1916 . Italy occupied the port of Vlorë and the region of south Principality of Albania on December 1914 and in the autumn 1916 .
= = = Northern Epirus = = =
Korçë belongs to the region regarded as Northern Epirus , a region with substantial Albanian , Aromanian and Greek populations . The Greek national view was to classify all Aromanians and Orthodox Albanians as part of the Greek minority . The Great Powers signed the Protocol of Florence and awarded the region to the newly founded Principality of Albania on December 17 , 1913 . Gradual withdrawal of the Greek army would enable the Albanian forces to take control of the region . Consequently , to avert this possibility , pro @-@ Greek Epirotes decided to declare their own separate political identity and self @-@ governance .
= = = = Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus = = = =
On February 28 , 1914 , the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was declared in Gjirokastër and the provisional Government was formed to support the state 's objectives . The Protocol of Corfu was signed on May 17 , 1914 and the Albanian Government officially recognized the area of Northern Epirus as an autonomous region within the Albanian state . Soon after the outbreak of World War I ( July 1914 ) , the situation in Albania became unstable and political chaos ensued . As the country split into a number of regional governments , Prince William departed the country in September 1914 .
= = = = Greek military and civil administration = = = =
On October 27 , 1914 , after approval from the Great Powers , the Greek army re @-@ entered the area . During the Greek administration , and while the First World War continued , it had been agreed between Greece , Italy and the Great Powers that the final settlement of the Northern Epirote issue should be left to the future , after the war ended . After Venizelos ' resignation in December however , the succeeding royalist governments were determined to exploit the situation and pre @-@ determine the region 's future by incorporating it formally within the Greek state . In the first months of 1916 , Northern Epirus participated in the Greek elections and elected 16 representatives for the Greek Parliament . In March , the region 's union with Greece was officially declared , and the area was divided into the prefectures of Argyrokastro and Korytsa .
= = = = Bulgarian occupation of Korçë = = = =
After the beginning of Bulgaria 's engagement in First World War on the side of the Central Powers in autumn 1915 , many ethnic Albanians joined the Bulgarians who gave them weapons . The Kingdom of Bulgaria used its army to occupy the eastern part of Albania at the beginning of the occupation of Albania .
After the occupation of the eastern parts of Albania , inclusive of the city of Elbasan , on August 18 , 1916 the Bulgarian army , probably attempting to join Austrian forces in Albania and in a combined attack on the Italian army , occupied Korçë and ejected the Greek garrison from the city . Bulgaria 's objective was to persuade the Albanian leaders to elect Prince Kiril , second son of Ferdinand I of Bulgaria , as their king ( Albanian : mbret ) . An additional reason for the Bulgarian occupation of Korçë was that Bulgarian positions in Bitolj would be seriously threatened if the Allies gained control of Korçë .
= = = = French occupation of Korçë = = = =
French troops entered Korçë on November 29 , 1916 during a military operation that aimed to connect the Allied front in Thessaloníki in the Macedonian front to the region in south Albania , which was held by the Italian troops . French troops in Korçë were under General Maurice Sarrail , and under direct command of Colonel Descoins . There were two groups of rebels active in the region of Korçë , one was led by Themistokli Gërmenji and another by Sali Butka . In the meantime , Albanian irregular bands , headed by Butka and cooperating with the Austrian forces , completely ravaged Moscopole , and threatened that if Korçë would suffer the same fate if it did not raise the Albanian flag and surrender to Albanian authorities .
= = Establishment of the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë = =
Colonel Descoins made arrangements with the leading Albanian nationalists from Korçë . French officers had a meeting with Themistokli Gërmenji on November 24 , 1916 . Themistokli Gërmenji came to Korçë from Pogradec , which was occupied by the armies of Austria @-@ Hungary and Bulgaria . The French officers appointed a commission led by Gërmenji . The commission had fourteen members , seven Christians and seven Muslims . The members of this commission were : Rafail Adhami , Kostandin Nocka , Nikolla Vangjeli , Vasil Singjeli , Vasil Kondi , Llambro Mborja , Thimi Cale , Shaqir Shabani , Tefik Rushiti , Hysen Dishnica , Emin Rakipi , Qani Dishnica , Sali Babani and Haki Shemshedini .
The commission held a meeting on December 10 at 9 am in the Saint George 's School and Gërmenji held a speech to the gathered men and after the meeting led the commission to the prefecture . In the prefecture they met with Colonel Descoins and with the other French officers . Haki Shemshedini approached to Colonel Descoins on behalf of the commission . Colonel Descoins informed the commission that they should sign a protocol . On December 10 , 1916 Colonel Descoins and the commission signed a protocol , according to which an autonomous province would be established on the territories of Korçë , Bilishti , Kolonja , Opar and Gora . It was also agreed that the 14 members of the commission would make up the administrative council , responsible for maintaining order .
= = = Protocol = = =
The text of the protocol , which stated that it was made according to the wishes of the Albanian delegates of kaza of Korçë , had 9 points that are summarized below :
the autonomous province of Korçë is established by this protocol , and refers to the territory of Korçë , Bilishti , Kolonja , Opar and Gora
the kaza Korçë will be governed by the Administrative Council with 14 members , half Christan and half Muslim
appointments to the positions in the kaza will be made by French military authorities , based on the proposal of the administrative council
for maintaining order in the kaza , the prefect of police will be responsible , using newly established gendarmerie and police
there shall be established a special unit of " Albanian gendarmerie mobile " which would be responsible for safeguarding the territory 's independence and freedom of its people
for the same purpose there can be established a regular battalion of volunteers
Police , gendarmerie and volunteer troops would be under superior authority of the French officer
the official language is Albanian
the flag of the kaza Korçë will be traditional Skanderbeg flag with tricolor French flag
The new authorities in Korçë organized the police force and gendarmerie , a post office system and issued postage stamps .
= = = Statute = = =
On September 27 , 1917 General Maurice Sarrail proclaimed a new statute which repealed constitutional protocol . The Administration was entrusted to the commander of the army group Malik . The Administrative Council was replaced with an Advisory Council which was reduced to 12 members ( still half Muslims and half Christians ) . Territory under French administration was divided on two parts , north ( Pogradec ) and south ( Republic of Korçë ) of Devolli .
= = = Administration = = =
On December 10 , 1916 , Henry Descoins , the commander of the French garrison of Korçë , with the approval of Maurice Sarrail , declared the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë , and appointed Themistokli Gërmenji as prefect . In the following period the Greeks of the city were persecuted by the Albanian nationalist elements that aimed at acquiring control over Korçë . As a result , the local Greeks asked the French authorities to prolong their occupation until the end of World War I.
In the period of March 1917 – February 1918 , Qani Dishnica was appointed as the Chairman of the Albanian Administrative Council . On the French side , the delegated governors of the Republic of Korçë were Henri Descoins ( December 10 , 1916 – May 11 , 1917 ) , Salle ( 1917 — 1919 ) and Reynard Lespinasse ( June 1919 – May 26 , 1920 ) .
The French delegated governors appointed an officer to be their delegate to the Council . The first officer appointed was reserve Lieutenant Bargeton , who was replaced in the middle of January 1917 by a Lieutenant Siegfried .
= = = Education = = =
France intended to help in establishing 200 elementary schools on Albanian language , as part of the strategy of Albanian national affirmation . On the other hand , all the Greek schools were forced to close down , while the Greek element of the city was persecuted . The Albanian National Lyceum ( French : Le lycée de Korça , Albanian : Liceu Kombëtar i Korçës ) high school in Korçë was established in 1917 . French authorities claim that they banned opening of the high school because they did not want to offend their Greek allies led by Eleftherios Venizelos ' Movement of National Defence , who claimed rights over the area . Some sources find this claim inappropriate , considering that the French Lycée in Thessaloníki sent professor Vital Gerson to lead a small team of three Albanian professors to join a French officer , who gave some notions of French culture , on the opening ceremony of the school . The French National Lyceum was the first Albanian high school that was open to the students of all faiths .
= = = Currency = = =
The frange ( Albanian ) or franc ( French ) was the currency of the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë ( also written " Koritza " on the currency ) between 1917 and 1921 . It was subdivided into 100 centimes . The currency was introduced during the period of French occupation . It was only issued in paper money form , with notes issued in denominations of 50 centimes , 1 and 5 frange . Both paper money and post stamps were engraved by the soldier Davier ( a student of Louis @-@ Oscar Roty ) .
= = = Pogradec = = =
In September 1917 , General Maurice Sarrail undertook an action against the armies of Austria @-@ Hungary and Bulgaria in Albania , and on September 9 French troops captured Pogradec . Together with the armies of Bulgaria and Austria @-@ Hungary , there were Albanians , led by Hysejn Nikolica , fighting against the French troops . Themistokli Gërmenji was awarded the Croix de guerre in November 1917 , for his participation in the French capture of Pogradec with the battalion from Korçë . Although the French government considered appointing Essad Pasha Toptani to govern the Pogradec region it remained under French administration .
= = Disestablishment of the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë = =
In November 1917 , General Salle reported that the attempt at cooperation between Christians and Muslims had resulted in frequent difficulties . At the end of 1917 Gërmenji was accused of collaboration with the Central Powers and executed in Thesaloniki after being sentenced to death by the French military court .
General Salle removed the already limited autonomy of the Council on February 16 , 1918 . After the armistices and capitulations at the end of First World War , it was agreed that France and Italy should continue to govern the territories they occupied , and that France , Italy and the British Empire together should govern Shkodër . As a result , the French army moved from Korçë on June 15 , 1920 . After the French army left Korçë , the fate of the territory that it administered was decided by the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 .
= = Aftermath = =
On December 12 , 1916 , Italy demanded explanations from the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs , through its ambassador , stating that the establishment of the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë violated the Treaty of London . Austria @-@ Hungary used the French precedent in Korçë to justify the proclamation of the independence of Albania under its protectorate on January 3 , 1917 in Shkodër . The Kingdom of Italy followed suit when proclaiming the independence of Albania under its protectorate on June 23 , 1917 in Gjirokastra .
Because General Maurice Sarrail had demonstrated a tendency to interfere in politics , Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau relieved him of his command in December 1917 . There was a strong French influence in Korçë even after the Autonomous Republic ceased to exist . The Albanian National Lyceum remained active until 1939 ; a French Military Cemetery was built and can still be seen in the city .
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= Typhoon Kujira ( 2003 ) =
Typhoon Kujira , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Amang , was an extremely long @-@ lived tropical cyclone that lasted for 16 days affected the island nations of Micronesia , Taiwan , and Japan in April 2003 , as well as the earliest typhoon in a calendar year to ever make landfall on the latter . Forming from a broad area of disturbed weather as a tropical depression on April 9 well removed form any landmasses , Kujira quickly intensified in its early stages , and was upgraded to a tropical storm just two days after cyclogenesis . Strengthening slowed afterwards , though the storm attained typhoon intensity on April 14 . Intensification continued and late on April 15 , Kujira reached its peak intensity with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Following peak intensity , Kujira would begin to track northwest and oscillate in strength , cresting an additional two times in intensity . On April 21 , the typhoon was downgraded to tropical storm intensity and began to track erratically for several days east of Taiwan . However , on April 24 , Kujira would resume a northward track and begin to weaken , and on April 24 was downgraded to tropical depression strength as it made landfall on Kyushu . Following landfall Kujira transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and continued to persist before these extratropical remnants crossed the International Dateline towards the end of April 2003 .
Shortly after developing , Kujira caused two fatalities in Pohnpei in addition to minor agricultural and infrastructure damage ; similar effects were felt in Guam . Several days later , the typhoon prompted cyclone warnings and other precautionary measures in the Philippines after forecasts indicated the potential for strong winds and rain . However , effects on the island chain associated with the storm remained minimal . The typhoon also prompted warning products in Taiwan , making it the first April typhoon since 1978 to cause such a feat . Unlike in the Philippines , however , Kujira would bring significant rainfall to Taiwan . Effects from the typhoon were most significant in Japan , particularly in the Ryukyu Islands . Strong winds , rain , and waves caused US $ 230 @,@ 000 ( ¥ 27 @.@ 8 million ) in agricultural damage on Ishigaki Island . One person was killed due to injuries resulting from the waves . In Kyushu , heavy rainfall , peaking at 196 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) in Ōita Prefecture , was reported . Overall , despite its distance away from land and weak intensity at the time of its sole landfall , Kujira resulted in three fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
The systems that would develop into Typhoon Kujira began as a broad area of convection on April 6 centered south of Pohnpei and near the equator . At the time , the area of disturbed weather exhibited multiple circulation centers , and thus the system remained generally disorganized . On April 8 , however , the convection began to consolidate towards a common center within an area of low wind shear . As such , both the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) and Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the storm system as a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on April 9 . For much of the cyclone 's early existence , the low @-@ level circulation center remained east of the primary convection cell as it tracked northward . Nonetheless , the JTWC upgraded the depression to tropical storm intensity just six hours after cyclogenesis , while the JMA continued to classify the system as a tropical depression .
Intensification was more gradual following April 9 . At 0000 UTC on April 11 , the JMA upgraded the system to tropical storm intensity , thus identifying it with the name Kujira . At roughly the same time , Kujira began to curve towards a westward track due to a high pressure area to the north . Concurrently the ambient wind shear abated and the storm further consolidated , allowing for more quicker strengthening . Throughout the following day , Kujira developed a banding eye feature that would later consolidate into a distinct circular eye ; this was reflected with an upgrade to typhoon status by both the JTWC and JMA at 1800 UTC on April 12 and 0000 UTC on April 14 , respectively . On April 14 , a shortwave trough caused Kujira to track slightly more northwestward . Marked intensification continued , and late on April 15 , the JTWC upgraded the typhoon to super typhoon intensity , the first of the year , while Kujira was located 400 km ( 250 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Yap State . At roughly the same time Kujira reached its peak intensity with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Estimated 1 @-@ minute sustained winds at that time were 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , equivalent to that of a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson wind scale . Following peak intensity , Kujira continued to track westward as it entered the area of responsibility of the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) at 1200 UTC on April 16 , and as such the name Amang was assigned to the typhoon by the agency .
On April 17 , the tropical cyclone began to track slightly southwestward and encountered an area of dry air and enhanced wind shear , thus temporarily weakening Kujira . Despite the prolonged effects from these inhibitors , the typhoon restrengthened to a secondary peak intensity the following day . Though the JTWC indicated a significant increase in maximum sustained winds , the intensification was only reflected by the JMA with a slight drop in barometric pressure . Over the next two days Kujira would begin to track more northward due to a weakness in the nearby subtropical ridge and oscillate in strength due to an eyewall replacement cycle ; a tertiary peak in strength occurred on April 20 before subsequent weakening . This trend continued , and at 1800 UTC on April 21 , both the JMA and JTWC downgraded Kujira to tropical storm status . Following the system 's downgrade , Kujira became quasi @-@ stationary due to the presence of two nearby high pressure areas , and its motion became erratic . Despite hostile atmospheric conditions , the tropical storm remained intact with persistent , deep convection and organized rainbands . Late on April 23 , however , the cyclone began to drift towards the north as it made its closest approach to Taiwan . Throughout the following day , Kujira would continue to accelerate towards the northeast and weaken at the same time . At 1200 UTC on April 24 , PAGASA ceased issuing advisories on the storm as it had exited the agency 's area of responsibility . At 0300 UTC the next day , the JMA downgraded the storm to tropical depression intensity while the JTWC ceased monitoring of the system three hours later . At roughly the same time , Kujira made landfall near Ushibuka , Kumamoto at the same intensity . Weakening continued , and the JMA would continue to classify the system as a tropical depression until 1200 UTC on April 25 , when it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The JMA would continue to track the extratropical remnants of Kujira until they crossed the International Dateline on April 30 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Shortly after forming , Kujira tracked near Pohnpei , resulting in heavy rainfall across the island , peaking at 250 mm ( 10 in ) . Despite the typhoon 's far distance from the island , two people were killed – one died after being crushed by a prostrated tree , while the other was killed offshore for unknown reasons . It also caused minor damage to buildings and crops on the island . The outer rainbands of the typhoon would later bring gale @-@ force winds and heavy precipitation as it passed well south of Guam . Afterwards , the storm remained well removed from landmasses for a period of time . On April 18 , however , PAGASA issued a public storm warning signal No. 1 for Catanduanes in the Philippines due to the likelihood for gusty winds and rainfall . As Kujira neared the archipelago , the No. 1 warning was expanded to include the Babuyan Islands while a No. 2 warning was introduced for the Batanes Islands in northern Philippines . In preparation for the typhoon , the National Disaster Coordinating Council readied regional disaster coordinating councils and contingency plans while the Armed Forces of the Philippines prepared for any potential emergency situation . The Philippine Coast Guard patrolled Filipino waters throughout Kujira 's close passage in order to redirect ships away from the typhoon . Though the typhoon had also threatened to cancel the biennial San Fernando Race , the concurrent SARS outbreak which had impacted the Philippines ultimately resulted in its cancelling . Eventually any effects in the Philippines remained minimal .
As Kujira began to track towards Taiwan , the Taiwanese government issued land- and sea @-@ based warnings in advance of the storm . The local weather bureau specifically alerted vessels off the southern and southeastern coasts of the island . Continued strengthening of Kujira prompted the Central Weather Bureau to issue medium typhoon warnings for several portions of Taiwan , though these warnings were downgraded to light typhoon status following the subsequent weakening of the typhoon on April 22 . This made Kujira the first April typhoon to prompt the issuance of any cyclone @-@ related warnings in Taiwan since 1978 . Impacts on the island were expected to be limited to rainfall , though the forecasted precipitation was also expected to lessen ongoing drought conditions . However , mudslides were also a potential impact from the typhoon . The National Fire Administration and Taiwan Power Company developed a contingency plan for the typhoon and had also undertaken other precautionary measures . Airports on Orchid Island and Green Island were closed . The resultant rainfall from Kujira 's outer rainbands would be some of the most significant for the island in several months .
Effects from Kujira in Japan were of the greatest extent as opposed to other regions . Several flights were cancelled due to poor visibility in Ehime Prefecture as a result of cloudy conditions onset by the nearby typhoon , and roughly 1 @,@ 800 passengers were affected by these cancellations . Similar flight delays and cancellations also occurred in Kōchi Prefecture . As Kujira approached Japan , the storm brought rough seas to the Ryukyu Islands , where wave heights of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) were recorded . In Okinawa , a women was swept away by the wave action . Though she was later rescued and transported to a nearby hospital , she later died of resulting injuries . Further south , on Ishigaki Island , intense rainfall and near @-@ record high wind gusts were reported . These combined effects caused US $ 230 @,@ 000 ( ¥ 27 @.@ 8 million ) in agricultural damage spread out over an area of 190 ha ( 460 acres ) . However , the heaviest rainfall associated with Kujira in Japan were on Kyushu . There , precipitation peaked at 196 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) in Shakadake , Ōita Prefecture . Five other locations , all of which were on Kyushu , reported rainfall totals in excess of 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) . Upon its final landfall near Ushibuka , Kumamoto , Kujira became the earliest typhoon in any given calendar year to make landfall in Japan .
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= Independence Pass ( Colorado ) =
Independence Pass , originally known as Hunter Pass , is a high mountain pass in the Rocky Mountains of central Colorado in the United States . It is at elevation 12 @,@ 095 ft ( 3 @,@ 687 m ) on the Continental Divide in the Sawatch Range . The pass is midway between Aspen and Twin Lakes , on the border between Pitkin and Lake counties .
State Highway 82 traverses it , in the process reaching the highest elevation of a paved Colorado state highway on a through road . After Cottonwood Pass to the south , it is the second @-@ highest pass with an improved road in the state , the fourth @-@ highest paved road in the state and the highest paved crossing of the Continental Divide in the U.S. Because of the heavy snowfall at its elevation , it is closed in wintertime , isolating Aspen from direct access from the east during the ski season .
When the pass is open in warmer weather , it is a popular destination . A scenic overlook near the pass allows visitors to take in the alpine tundra environment above treeline , and offers excellent views to the east of Mount Elbert , Colorado 's highest peak and the second @-@ highest mountain in the contiguous United States . Rock climbers are drawn to nearby bouldering opportunities , and informal paths lead to nearby mountain summits of even higher elevation . Backcountry skiers make use of the slopes during the late spring and early summer . Since 2011 the pass has been on the route of the USA Pro Cycling Challenge .
The pass was formed by glacial action and erosion in the region , and its first recorded sighting was by Zebulon Pike in 1806 . Ferdinand Hayden surveyed it in 1873 . As part of the Continental Divide , it was the limit of European settlement in the region at the time , with the land to the west reserved for the Ute people . Prospectors who defied governor Frederick Walker Pitkin 's order crossed the pass on July 4 , 1879 , giving it its current name and setting up a similarly named village ( now a ghost town ) to its west . A toll road built across the pass was abandoned and neglected after a railroad connection was made to Aspen . A new road replaced it in the 1920s ; portions of the old route can still be seen along the western approach . The Independence Pass Foundation , based in Aspen , works to repair damage to the pass 's environment caused by both roads since 1984 .
= = Geography = =
At the pass , the main ridge of the Sawatch Range , and thus the Continental Divide , turns from running generally south to more southwesterly . North of the pass slopes rise to an unnamed 13 @,@ 440 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 100 m ) peak a half @-@ mile ( 1 km ) away ; a ridge of about the same length connects it to the nearest named summit , 13 @,@ 711 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 179 m ) Twining Peak . To the south the ridge rises more gently around Mountain Boy Gulch to an unnamed 13 @,@ 198 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 023 m ) summit 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) distant . The first named summit in this direction is Grizzly Peak , Colorado 's highest thirteener .
The terrain is level enough , and the ridge broad enough , to allow for a 500 @-@ foot ( 150 m ) parking lot along the south side of Highway 82 at the height of land . The pass is split evenly between Pitkin and Lake counties , as well as White River and San Isabel national forests . Boundaries of the Collegiate Peaks Wilderness and the Mount Massive Wilderness are near the pass on the south and north respectively . The Hunter – Fryingpan Wilderness is also nearby .
West of the parking area is a small maintenance shed ; on the east are toilet facilities . Both are maintained by the U.S. Forest Service . A paved walkway system extends to a pair of overlooks 500 feet ( 150 m ) to the south allowing views in that direction over the Lake Creek valley to Mount Elbert , at 14 @,@ 440 feet ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) the highest peak both in Colorado and the Rocky Mountains , and La Plata Peak , another fourteener and the state 's fifth @-@ highest peak . A wide dirt path continues southward three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) along the ridge to an unnamed 13 @,@ 020 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 970 m ) summit . Across the road a use path leads 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) to the summits of the unnamed peak and Twining .
The pass comes roughly in the middle of a 32 @-@ mile ( 51 km ) stretch of Highway 82 between the two winter gates , a corridor that is sometimes referred to in its entirety as Independence Pass . Aspen is 19 miles ( 31 km ) to the west , with Twin Lakes 18 miles ( 29 km ) to the east . Beyond Aspen the highway continues down the valley to the mouth of the Roaring Fork at Glenwood Springs . East of Twin Lakes Highway 82 continues a short distance to its eastern terminus at U.S. Highway 24 , 15 miles ( 24 km ) south of Leadville .
On both approaches , the dropoff is steep enough for Highway 82 to require a 6 % grade and switchbacks : one on the west and three on the east . The former approach uses the narrow valley of the Roaring Fork River , a tributary of the Colorado , which rises from Independence Lake west of the pass . Its walls are steeper but shallower than those of the North Fork of Lake Creek , which drains into Twin Lakes Reservoir and the headwaters of the Arkansas River , on the east .
The pass is above tree line , so the surrounding terrain is alpine tundra . Open grassy expanses are occasionally broken by low shrubbery and bare patches of rock , particularly on the steep slope to the north . Snow lingers in some areas year @-@ round . Adjacent to the road and parking area are small ephemeral pools on the southwest , with a larger , permanent one north of the road .
= = History = =
Like the surrounding mountains , the pass was created by glaciation and erosion over thousands of years . Before European @-@ American settlers arrived , it was in the territory of the Ute Native American tribe . One of the earliest sightings by a European @-@ American was in 1806 , when Zebulon Pike , mapping the southern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase , spotted the gap in what would later be named the Sawatch Range from the upper Arkansas River valley . It was not explored until Ferdinand Hayden and his team surveyed it in 1873 . At the time it was known as Hunter Pass .
Three years later , in 1876 , Colorado became a state . At the time settlement had pushed as far west from its capital , Denver , as Leadville . There was a variety of metals and minerals in the surrounding mountains , and some miners had become rich from their claims there . Those who had not been so successful heard about reports from prospectors of abundant silver deposits further west , over the Divide .
Governor Frederick Walker Pitkin had ordered all settlers to stay to the east of the Divide , as the state and federal governments had not made peace with the Utes . Nevertheless , some defied the order , drawn by the prospect of mining fortunes . Settlers sometimes used Hunter Pass to get to Ashcroft , an early camp on Castle Creek above the Roaring Fork . However , they preferred to take the southern route over the slightly higher Cottonwood Pass through Taylor Park and then back over Taylor Pass to get there , even though this made for a 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) journey , 40 miles ( 64 km ) more than the direct route offered by Hunter Pass .
On July 4 , 1879 , a group from Leadville struck gold in the uppermost Roaring Fork valley below the pass . Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the west , they established a settlement in the upper Roaring Fork Valley that eventually took the name Independence from the holiday on which it was established . The pass , the lake from which the Roaring Fork rises and another nearby mountain all took that name as well . The Twin Lakes and Roaring Fork Toll Company , established to build a road through to the camps in the lower Roaring Fork Valley , improved the original path over the pass sufficiently enough by 1880 that horses could be used for the trip .
Independence grew quickly when more gold was found in the nearby mountains . Within two years of its settlement permanent buildings had replaced the original tents , and a mining concern from Leadville had bought up all the claims . In two years they produced gold worth $ 190 @,@ 000 ( $ 4 @.@ 66 million in modern dollars ) , funding the construction of a stamping mill and sawmill . In Aspen , further down the valley , silver was found in even greater abundance than Independence 's gold . B. Clark Wheeler , an early investor in those mines , funded the construction of a stage road to Leadville , the first road to cross the pass . It opened in November 1881 , with winter already in full swing at the pass .
The road charged 25 cents ( $ 6 in modern dollars ) for saddle horses and twice that for two @-@ axle stagecoaches . The tolls , collected at three separate gates , primarily reflected the cost of retaining a large crew of men with snow shovels to keep the road open in wintertime ; they were able to keep the road open through its first five winters . When the snow was too deep , sleighs were used instead . During the summer the stages were able to take the switchbacks at full speed , with dogs running in advance to warn other traffic . A typical voyage over the pass required 10 – 25 hours and five changes of horses .
The road improved Independence 's economy , since coaches often stopped there on the multi @-@ day journey . However , the year of its construction would turn out to be the settlement 's economic peak year . Gold production dropped off after 1884 . Independence 's decline in population , remote location and severe high @-@ altitude winters cost it the opportunity to be seat of newly formed Pitkin County to Aspen , located on a larger plain further down the river and growing much more rapidly due to the Colorado Silver Boom . When a rail connection was made to that city in 1888 , the stage road fell into disuse , further hurting Independence 's economy . All but one of the remaining residents decamped as a group to Aspen on improvised cross @-@ country skis during the severe winter of 1899 . The holdout , J.R. Williams , remained until 1920 . The nearby Williams Mountains were named for him .
By then Aspen 's prosperity had receded as well . Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in response to the Panic of 1893 , which took the largest buyer of the city 's silver out of the market . Aspen began a period of steady decline known today as " the quiet years " as mines gradually closed down . The route over the pass remained useful , however . In 1895 a telephone line was routed over it .
Although its population had dropped below a thousand by the late 1920s , in 1927 the state replaced the stage road with what eventually became Highway 82 . Unlike the stage road , it was closed during the winter months . While most of the old route was used for the new road , a portion of the original grade remains three miles below the pass on the east side . It includes the foundation of the gatekeeper 's house and the remains of the gate .
During the Great Depression , another large public works project involved the pass . The federal Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) oversaw the construction of the Twin Lakes Tunnel , which diverted water from Grizzly Reservoir , on Lincoln Creek , a southern tributary of the Roaring Fork , to Twin Lakes , where it was used for irrigation purposes by beet and watermelon farmers in the Rocky Ford and Ordway areas . Starting in 1935 , 50 @,@ 000 acre @-@ feet ( about 61 @.@ 7 million m ³ ) were made available this way .
Another WPA effort recognized the pass as a scenic attraction . A travel guidebook for automobile touring produced by the Federal Writers ' Project gave as one route the trip along Highway 82 from Twin Lakes . It noted the distinctive landscape of the pass :
The highway rises in a series of loops and curves towards the Continental Divide . Thinning pines , gnarled and stubby from their fight for existence , give way to bare boulders , hardy grasses and the alpine vegetation of a world above the clouds . The road along the sheer face of the mountain , while steep , is one of the safest traversing a pass in Colorado .
A stone monument and several small lakes mark the summit of Independence Pass , the highest and probably the most impressive automobile pass in the state . An arctic meadowland overshadowed only by the topmost notches of the Sawatch Range , it rises far above the peaks that towered high when viewed from the Lake Creek valley .
After World War II , Aspen began to grow and prosper again due to the establishment of a popular ski resort , an annual music festival , and a relaxed lifestyle which attracted many celebrities and corporate executives to the city . Visitors to Aspen generally had to take Highway 82 up from Glenwood Springs or fly in , as few wanted to drive over the unpaved pass road . In 1967 the State Highway Department remedied this by paving the road over the pass . It has since been designated part of Colorado 's " Top of the Rockies " scenic byway by the state and federal departments of transportation .
= = Environment = =
The alpine biome of the pass extends below it on either side to an elevation of approximately 11 @,@ 500 feet ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) , or about the altitude of the Linkins Lake trailhead on the western side , Highway 82 's uppermost crossing of the Roaring Fork . Below it is a subalpine zone where lodgepole pine , Engelmann spruce , subalpine fir and aspen dominate the forest . A few patches of those trees persist above that elevation , but they are mostly stunted krummholz .
Tree growth above those patches is curtailed by the alpine climate of the pass . It is characterized by severe changes in temperature , high winds and the deep winter snow . The resulting short growing season is made even shorter by the thin soil .
The most predominant plant species in the alpine zone around the pass are the grass species adapted to the harsh climate . Other alpine flora , such as moss and lichens on the rocks , and wildflowers in season , make appearances . Shrubs that survive among them include strawberry , snowberry , willows and bog birch . Animals in the alpine zone include ptarmigans , small burrowing species like pika , marmots , and pocket gopher , and mountain goats .
Two types of rock are found in the pass and its vicinity . Quartz monzonite forms many of the cliffs , while the crags are biotite gneiss . The glaciation , which dates to as recently as 12 @,@ 000 years ago , smoothed much of the rock to the point of it being slippery .
= = Visitor attractions = =
Many visitors stop at the parking lot and walk the paved path to the scenic overlook . In clear enough weather it offers views east of Mount Elbert , Colorado 's highest peak , and La Plata Peak , the state 's fifth @-@ highest at 14 @,@ 336 feet ( 4 @,@ 370 m ) . To the west more fourteeners — the Maroon Bells , Snowmass Mountain and Capitol Peak — stand out among the mountains . A trail with Braille interpretive plaques is available for visually impaired visitors .
Other outdoor recreation opportunities exist at and near the pass . Between the pass and Difficult Campground , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of Aspen , there are many popular rock climbing areas , some with grades up to 5 @.@ 12 under the Yosemite Decimal System . The Grotto Wall across from Lincoln Gulch campground is a frequent destination . Closer to the pass are Instant Karma Cliff and Putterman 's Dome . A pair of rocks along either side of Highway 82 on the east approach to the pass are popular bouldering spots .
On the days after the pass reopens in the spring , backcountry skiers often take advantage of the remaining snow on the slopes . In years following heavy winters , skiing is possible into July .
Water @-@ based recreation is available near the pass as well , particularly on the Roaring Fork side . At the Grottos climbing cliffs eight miles ( 14 @.@ 4 km ) to the west of the pass , a short trail leads to an area along the river known as the Devil 's Punchbowl , with high stone cliffs on either side and waterfalls . It is a popular swimming hole due to its deep and cool waters . The river is popular with anglers casting for trout as well , and some even make the hike from the pass up to Blue Lake for its lake and cutthroat trout stocks .
Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of the pass is the site of Independence , the village whose establishment on July 4 led to the pass 's current name . It has been a ghost town since the early 20th century . In 1973 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Most of its buildings were cannibalized for their building supplies , but a few log cabins remain . The Aspen Historical Society , in conjunction with the U.S. Forest Service , built an interpretive trail with plaques .
In 2011 the USA Pro Cycling Challenge bicycle race around Colorado was held for the first time . A 131 @-@ mile ( 211 km ) stage from Gunnison to Aspen was routed over both Cottonwood and Independence passes . Spectators were allowed to camp at the pass ; their impact on the pass 's environment led to a ban on camping within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of it for the following year 's event . The Forest Service posted signs reminding spectators at the pass of the fragility of the surrounding tundra
= = Travel advisories and restrictions = =
The Colorado Department of Transportation ( CDOT ) restricts the use of Highway 82 through the pass . Most significant is the winter closure . The road is typically closed after the first significant winter snowfall , or by November 7 at the latest . CDOT tries to reopen just before Memorial Day weekend in late May , the traditional beginning of summer in the United States , when enough of the accumulated snowpack has melted to make it possible to clear and repair the road . Some years , after light winters , the pass has reopened as early as May 12 . Two gates , just east of Aspen on the west end and west of the remaining buildings of the stage stop of Everett on the east , prevent motor vehicles from passage . When the road is closed , Aspen is isolated from the east and Highway 82 up the valley from Glenwood Springs becomes the only vehicular access to the city during its busy ski season .
Even when the pass is open , not all vehicles may use the road . Oversized and overweight vehicles are prohibited from the pass , as are all vehicles or vehicle combinations longer than 35 feet ( 11 m ) regardless of weight or size . This precludes use of the pass by tractor trailers , buses , and recreational vehicles .
Some truck drivers use the pass despite the prohibition . They are generally either unaware of the restriction and following routes plotted by their GPS devices , or aware of it and willing to risk the fine for the sake of the time and distance saved . The resulting accidents have sometimes forced the closure of the pass . CDOT put up larger signs advising drivers of the ban and worked with GPS device manufacturers so their software notes the restriction . Aspen officials have suggested increasing the fines as a deterrent .
Driving through the pass is challenging . Both approaches require 6 % grades due to the height of the pass , and require navigating hairpin turns with speed limits of 10 mph ( 15 km / h ) . Rockfalls , particularly on the approach from Aspen , have narrowed some sections to a single lane 12 feet ( 4 m ) wide with temporary traffic lights . On the Twin Lakes approach , they have resulted in temporary closures . Other vehicles frequently enter the road unexpectedly at the many parking areas for campgrounds and other recreational attractions , and bicyclists make frequent use of Highway 82 as well . Lastly , the weather at the pass can be unpredictable and vary considerably from conditions in either Aspen or Twin Lakes . There may be thunderstorms on otherwise clear days , and snow can occur at any time of the year . CDOT advises anyone coming to the pass for outdoor recreation to take precautions against the effects of the high altitude and the changeable weather .
= = Independence Pass Foundation = =
Since the days of the stage road avalanches and rockfalls often forced closures of the highway , partly due to the massive disturbance of the land during the road 's construction . No attempt was made to remedy this until shortly after the automobile road was built . In the 1930s , as a relief project during the Great Depression , a crew from the Civilian Conservation Corps replanted the slopes around Independence , by then abandoned for two decades .
At that time , Aspen was a faded mining town whose population had dwindled to fewer than a thousand . Later in the decade the first efforts to develop a ski resort began . They continued after World War II , and in the later decades of the 20th century the city began to grow again . Other than paving the road , CDOT was unable to undertake any significant improvements to the highway corridor due to its projects elsewhere in the state and the requirement to coordinate efforts with the Forest Service , which owns most of the damaged land .
Beginning in 1976 , Bob Lewis , an environmental activist in Aspen , organized revegetation efforts on some sections of the pass near the road that were having serious erosion problems . He realized eventually that a dedicated nonprofit organization would be a better way to address the many issues that remained . The Independence Pass Foundation ( IPF ) was established in 1989 . Its first project , coordinated with the Forest Service , CDOT and Pitkin County , was the reconstruction of a curve near the popular Weller Lake trailhead .
The success of the Weller Curve project cleared the way for work on the Top Cut , the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) stretch just below the summit on the western side , which includes the most seriously eroded slopes anywhere in the pass corridor . Lewis had always intended to focus the IPF 's efforts on it , and the organization began the first of several ongoing projects there in 1996 . Work included the construction of stone retaining walls as well as revegetation . By the 2010s the results were evident .
With the success of these projects , IPF has been doing revegetation projects along the road below the Top Cut since 2004 . Compost blankets were applied to large sections of the soil to replace lost nutrients . In 2009 the foundation began removing metal and rebar snow fences embedded in the soil just below the pass summit during the 1960s as part of an abortive project to increase meltwater capture by the Twin Lakes Tunnel . They were an aesthetic blight as well as an environmental problem , and had to be removed using a team of mules and helicopters due to the wilderness area restrictions . The last fence material was removed in 2012 .
IPF has undertaken other projects to promote awareness of the work that needs to be done at the pass to protect its distinctive environment . Groups from local schools have spent a day up in the pass working and learning . Many have adopted the same sites and work on them with a new class each year . Along with the Aspen Center for Environmental Studies , the foundation also cosponsors a " My Independence " all @-@ day walking tour of the pass for adults that covers ecological topics in depth .
Every May since 1994 , just before CDOT reopens the pass , the foundation holds its popular Ride for the Pass , a charity bicycle race that serves as a major outreach event and fundraiser . It follows a 9 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) route from the gate east of Aspen to the Independence townsite , climbing 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) in the process . The IPF has canceled it twice due to poor weather .
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= Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet =
Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet ( planetarian ～ ちいさなほしのゆめ ～ , Planetarian : Chiisana Hoshi no Yume ) is a Japanese post @-@ apocalyptic visual novel developed by Key , a brand of VisualArt 's whose previous works include Kanon and Air . It was released over the Internet on November 29 , 2004 for Windows PCs , and is rated for all ages . The game was later ported to the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) and PlayStation Portable , as well as mobile devices . The story centers on a middle @-@ aged man who comes across a malfunctioning robot in a dead city . The man , known simply as " the junker " , stays with this robot for a time and attempts to fix the projector of the planetarium where the story takes place .
Key defines Planetarian as a " kinetic novel " , since its gameplay offers no choices or alternate endings . Instead , the player proceeds through the story solely by reading . The story is written by Yūichi Suzumoto and Planetarian is one of two Key games not to have Itaru Hinoue as an artist , using Eeji Komatsu instead . The game 's soundtrack was composed and arranged by Key 's signature composers Magome Togoshi and Shinji Orito . A light novel of short stories set in the world of Planetarian was released in April 2006 , and three audio dramas have also been produced . An original net animation adaptation premiered in July 2016 and an anime film will be released in September 2016 . Planetarian 's story , artwork and music have been praised , and the PS2 version ranked first for console games in terms of satisfaction in 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
Planetarian is a post @-@ apocalyptic visual novel in which the player assumes the role of the junker . Unlike traditional visual novels , no choices are given to the player in Planetarian to advance the story , and there is only one possible ending ; this is what Key referred to as a kinetic novel . The player can choose when to advance to the next dialogue screen or put the game on auto play . In this respect , the player does not play the game as if it were a video game , but plays it rather more like one would play a music track on a CD or play a DVD film . During gameplay , the player can choose to hide the text from view and go back to any previous lines . The game can be saved at any point in any of the five save slots available , and a load option is available where the player can load any of the automatically saved chapter markers , or choose to load any of the manually saved games .
By length of story , Planetarian is the shortest of Key 's games . Excluding the opening and ending sequences , there are 16 parts to the story ; the first half is set within the planetarium while the latter half is set outside in the ruined city where the planetarium resides . The novel takes four hours and forty minutes to complete on auto play . After the game has been completed at least once , two new options appear on the title screen . The first is a feature that allows the player to view twenty images of CG artwork observed in the game . The second option allows the player to listen to eight of the nine music tracks featured in the game .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic world . It is said that due to the depletion of natural resources , overpopulation , and the failure of the Space Exploration Project , humanity has virtually eradicated itself through biological and nuclear warfare , turning a once prosperous civilization into complete ruin , cast in darkness and poisoned by constant rain from nuclear fallout . One military invasion in the past was at Mare Nectaris . The bloodshed continues 30 years after the war in a dystopic world via automated war machines , which kill anyone trespassing into their territory . Of the remaining humans , there are those known as " junkers " who go around scavenging for anything in order to survive ; the protagonist in the story is one .
The main location where most of the story takes place is the fictional Flowercrest Department Store in a derelict city . It is based on the real Matsubishi Department Store of Hamamatsu , Shizuoka in Japan , although the planetarium on the rooftop is fictitious . The onset of the story takes place within the planetarium which is where the protagonist first meets Yumemi . The most prominent feature in the room when a show is not taking place is the large black planetarium projector called " Miss Jena " , which is placed on a stage in front of the seats . The planetarium has electricity when the protagonist arrives , but only for a short time . Once a year , for 168 hours , electricity in the planetarium is operational , but the projector is broken . The rest of the floors in the department store are in ruins ; mold and rats run rampant .
= = = Characters = = =
The junker ( 屑屋 , Kuzuya )
Voiced by : Daisuke Ono
The protagonist is a nameless middle @-@ aged soldier living the life of a " junker " — scavenging useful items among ruined cities to survive . He enters a derelict city searching for undamaged goods and finds an abandoned planetarium on the roof of a building he first thinks is a military facility . There , he meets Yumemi Hoshino , a gynoid designed to look like a young girl who annoys him greatly due to her constant talking . The protagonist has a tough personality that comes from trying to survive in a dystopic world . He carries a grenade launcher with him and covers himself with a waterproof coat to protect his skin from the toxic rain . For drinking water , his canteen has a water purifier that can purify the rain . He is constantly searching for rarer substances such as cigarettes and alcohol which can be sold at high prices .
Yumemi Hoshino ( ほしのゆめみ , Hoshino Yumemi )
Voiced by : Keiko Suzuki
Yumemi is a goodhearted but extremely talkative gynoid attendant of an abandoned planetarium ; she is designed to look like a young girl . Yumemi is slightly damaged and completely unaware of the changes that have occurred in the past 30 years , as none of the facilities and databases that she connects to exist anymore . Therefore , she treats the protagonist like a regular guest by calling him " Mr. Customer " ( お客様 , Okyaku @-@ sama ) , speaks of the world as it was before the war , and fails to understand any information he tells her , other than things related to her job at the planetarium . The name " Hoshino Yumemi " itself is a pun — " hoshi " means star or planetary body ; " no " is a possessive particle ; " yume " is a dream or a reverie ; " mi " means see . Yumemi is the only character shown to the audience of the game .
Yumemi is very adamant about protecting humans and is happiest when she is helping those she serves . When she is unable to help someone , she gets terribly worried that she is incapable of offering assistance and must instead indirectly help a customer by directing him or her to someone who can . Protecting humans is her top priority and will even ignore previous orders to make sure no human is harmed when in her care .
= = = Story = = =
While dodging detection from war machines in a ruined city , the protagonist enters a building with a dome on the roof to search for usable supplies . Once inside the dome , he meets Yumemi , who offers to show him a special commemorative projection especially reserved for the 2,500,000th customer , although he is in fact the 2,497,290th customer . Despite his aggravation with her , he agrees to attend her show . However , the projector device , " Miss Jena " , has broken down and is in need of repair . After he repairs it , Yumemi starts the show , presenting a projection of the starry sky , something that cannot be seen from the surface because of the polluted skies . The power goes out in the midst of the show , but Yumemi proceeds through the rest of the event with no visuals at the request of the protagonist .
Afterward , both of them leave the planetarium , as Yumemi insists on escorting him back to his vehicle outside the city walls . The protagonist plans to transport Yumemi out of the city after her battery runs out and find a way to reactivate her . A machine the protagonist calls a fiddler crab , due to its design , is guarding the entrance to the city in which he came from , and he devises a plan to destroy it armed with only a grenade launcher . After his initial plan fails and he is forced to face the machine front on , Yumemi tries to protect the protagonist , but is blown in half by the war machine 's machine guns .
Yumemi spends her emergency battery life replaying her pre @-@ war memories to the protagonist using a tiny holographic projector on her ear . When the video fades , she reveals that she had known that the planetarium would never have more customers during the 30 years she was alone , despite her apparent infinite optimism up to this point . In her final moment as she " dies " in front of him , Yumemi ejects the memory card from her artificial brain for his safekeeping . Touched and completely shaken by the loss of the beautiful world she left in his mind , he throws away his gun and puts the memory card in his coat , before wandering off with a broken leg as the fallen war machine 's automated backup units are closing in on the scene .
= = Development = =
Planetarian is Key 's fourth visual novel , and had a small staff of three main people that did the majority of the work for the game 's first release . Unlike previous Key titles , Planetarian 's art director position was given to Eeji Komatsu instead of Itaru Hinoue who had held the position for the three previous games . Komatsu was chosen not only because of his specialty in depicting mechanics and robots , but also because he could represent short scenes which touch on a robot 's existence to reproduce a person 's ideals . Furthermore , Key was not short on staff at the time , and was not forced to outsource the artwork of Planetarian . Jun Maeda , Key 's main scenario writer and project planner , was left out of the project , and Yūichi Suzumoto was given the position of planning and scenario . The music , excluding a single piece composed by Shinji Orito , was arranged or composed entirely by Magome Togoshi , one of Key 's signature composers . Planetarian was the first game under the brand name KineticNovel to be described by the term " kinetic novel " .
In the original version , Yumemi is only voiced during the beginning and ending scenes , while other characters are not voiced . When Planetarian was released for Windows PCs on CD @-@ ROM , Yumemi had full voice acting . The PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) port offers full voice acting for the entire cast . Other changes to the PS2 version include a higher resolution for the computer graphics and an extended soundtrack . All other later versions contained full voice acting .
= = = Release history = = =
Planetarian was released on November 29 , 2004 via download over the Internet playable on Windows PCs , and was first made available only to Yahoo ! Japan Broadband users . The game was opened up for general sale on December 6 , 2004 . Key released a CD @-@ ROM version for Windows PCs on April 28 , 2006 in limited and regular editions . An updated version of Planetarian compatible for Windows Vista PCs was released by Key on July 31 , 2009 in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box . Another updated version compatible for Windows 7 PCs called Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet Memorial Edition was released on April 30 , 2010 . The Memorial Edition also came bundled with the three previously released Planetarian drama CDs . An HD edition for Windows will be released on July 29 , 2016 . Planetarian was released on Steam by Sekai Project in English for Windows on September 12 , 2014 , with later support planned for OS X and Linux devices . The Steam release was updated on September 17 , 2014 to allow the user to switch to the original Japanese version of the game .
A consumer console port of the game was released for the PS2 on August 24 , 2006 by Prototype . A version playable on FOMA mobile phones was released by Prototype through VisualArt 's Motto on November 24 , 2006 . < A limited edition version of Planetarian developed by Prototype playable on the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) was available for purchase between February 28 and March 1 , 2009 at Key 10th Memorial Fes , an event held in commemoration of Key 's ten @-@ year anniversary . A downloadable version of the PSP release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on August 24 , 2009 . Prototype again sold the PSP version at their Prototype Fan Appreciation 2010 event on May 30 , 2010 . The PSP version was re @-@ released on May 12 , 2011 as a fundraising release for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . A mobile app version playable on Android and iOS devices was released on November 30 , 2011 . An updated iOS version released in January 2013 includes support for English readers .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Light novel = = =
A light novel featuring a collection of four illustrated short stories , including a prologue and an epilogue , and based on Planetarian 's story were written by Yūichi Suzumoto and illustrated by Eeji Komatsu . The 243 @-@ page novel was originally bundled with the limited edition of the CD version of Planetarian , and was also included in the limited edition of the PlayStation 2 version . The book was re @-@ published as a commercial release by VisualArt 's under their VA Bunko light novel imprint on October 31 , 2008 , and was the second title on the imprint . A downloadable version of the novel titled Hoshi no Hito : Planetarian Side Story on Android devices was released on November 30 , 2011 , followed by a version on iOS devices on December 14 , 2011 . The first two stories presented occur before the events of the kinetic novel , and the latter two occur during its aftermath . The front matter of the book reads , " Starry sky , words , God , robots . A collection of short stories in the key of these four themes . " A short preview of the book is available online .
Snow Globe ( 雪圏球 , Sunō Gurōbu )
This story occurs before the events of the war that brought the world to ruin ; at this point , Yumemi has been working at the Flowercrest Department Store 's rooftop planetarium for about ten years . One day , Yumemi begins to act strangely , culminating in her simply walking out and wandering around the town . The staff of the planetarium are bewildered , and one of the workers — a woman named Satomi Kurahashi — is ordered to go follow Yumemi and bring her back . Before long , Yumemi begins to run out of battery power .
Jerusalem ( エルサレム , Erusaremu )
This story occurs as the war reaches its height . The South American Unification Army receives reports of a rogue sniper operating deep in the jungles of Patagonia , and sends a platoon under the command of Master Sergeant Murdock to neutralize the threat . However , the entire platoon is killed off one by one by the sniper , until only Murdock is left . All alone , Murdock catches a glimpse of this mysterious sniper through his binoculars — and is shocked to find that he gazes upon the figure of a beautiful nun .
Hoshi no Hito ( 星の人 , lit . " Man of the Stars " )
This story occurs some time after the events of the kinetic novel , as human civilization struggles in a losing battle against the poisonous rain . Three of the last inhabitants of a nearly abandoned underground fallout shelter — named Levi , Ruth , and Job — find a quaint old man collapsed in the snow outside the bunker . When they bring him down , they are surprised to hear the adults calling him " Man of the Stars " . The children grow quite interested about his strange nickname , as well as the fact that they have never seen a visitor from the outside world . The old man recovers a bit and has the children help him in putting together a portable planetarium projector . This story offers an ultimate conclusion to the story in the kinetic novel .
Tircis and Aminte ( チルシスとアマント , Chirushisu to Amanto )
Identical twins Tircis and Aminte study alone in a world of their own . Tircis begins to wonder why he is studying and how long will it go on . This is the story of how the answer reveals itself to Tircis and Aminte .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
Three drama CDs were released by Key Sounds Label based on the short stories in the light novel . The first , A Snow Globe , was released on December 29 , 2006 at Comiket 71 bearing the catalog number KSLA @-@ 0027 ; it was later re @-@ released on May 25 , 2007 with a different cover . The opening track takes place one year before the protagonist arrives at the planetarium and the " Snow Globe " story is told as a flashback . The end of the drama CD is where the kinetic novel begins . The second drama CD , Jerusalem , was released on July 27 , 2007 bearing the catalog number KSLA @-@ 0029 . The insert song " Brave New World " by fripSide is included at the end of the drama CD . The final drama CD , Hoshi no Hito , was released on July 27 , 2007 bearing the catalog numbers KSLA @-@ 0030 – 0031 . This drama CD covers both the " Hoshi no Hito " and " Tircis and Aminte " stories . A cast of voice actors perform the characters in " Hoshi no Hito " , but " Tircis and Aminte " is a recited story by Keiko Suzuki , the voice of Yumemi Hoshino .
= = = Anime = = =
A five @-@ episode original net animation ( ONA ) adaptation was produced by David Production and directed by Naokatsu Tsuda . The series premiered on July 7 , 2016 on Niconico and other online services . The screenplay is written by Tsuda and Shogo Yasukawa . Hitomi Takechi based the character design used in the anime on Eeji Komatsu 's original designs . Sound and music direction is headed by Tsuda and Takayuki Yamaguchi . Katsuichi Nakayama and Shunsuke Machitani are the series directors . The anime 's music is composed by Magome Togoshi , Shinji Orito , Donmaru and Tomohiro Takeshita . The ending theme of the ONA series is " Twinkle Starlight " by Sayaka Sasaki . The image song " Worlds Pain " is by Ceui . The same staff will also produce an anime film titled Planetarian : Hoshi no Hito that will premiere in Japanese theaters on September 3 , 2016 .
= = = = Episode list = = = =
= = Music = =
The visual novel has one main theme song , the ending theme " Hoshi Meguri no Uta " ( 星めぐりの歌 , Song of Circling Stars ) sung by Mell of I 've Sound , an arrangement of the folk song by Kenji Miyazawa . The Planetarian Original Soundtrack was released on August 11 , 2006 at Comiket 70 by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog number KSLA @-@ 0025 ; it was later re @-@ released on December 28 , 2006 . The soundtrack contains one disc with twelve tracks composed , arranged , and produced by Magome Togoshi , and Shinji Orito ; themes originally composed by Charles Crozat Converse and Miyazawa were remixed on the soundtrack . " Hoshi no Sekai ( Opening ) " ( 星の世界 , World of Stars ( Opening ) ) and " Itsukushimi Fukaki " ( 慈しみ深き , Deep Affection ) are rearrangements of the hymn " What a Friend We Have in Jesus " by Converse , and their titles reflect this as well : " Hoshi no Sekai " refers to the Japanese version of the hymn named " Hoshinoyo " , and " Itsukushimi Fukaki " is the Japanese translation of the hymn 's original title . A single performed by Sayaka Sasaki and Ceui will be released on July 27 , 2016 for the ONA series titled " Twinkle Starlight / Worlds Pain " .
All songs arranged by Magome Togoshi , except where noted .
= = Reception and sales = =
In a review by Marcus Estrada of Hardcore Gamer , he praised Planetarian for having a " beautiful story , " gorgeous CGs and a soundtrack that " sets a melancholic , but hopeful mood fitting with the story . " He also noted that " even as an aging property Planetarian still looks and sounds good . " Planetarian is one of several kinetic novels featured in the Lycèe Trading Card Game ; Yumemi and the planetarium are playable cards in the second VisualArt 's card set . In the February 2007 issue of SoftBank Creative 's Gemaga magazine , the PS2 version ranked first for console games in terms of satisfaction ; the game had ranked fourth in the previous issue . In the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu released on September 8 , 2006 , it was reported that the PS2 version of Planetarian sold 8 @,@ 170 units the week of August 21 to August 27 , 2006 ( the PS2 version was originally sold on August 24 , 2006 ) . When the PSP version was re @-@ released as a fundraising event for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , 16 @,@ 663 units were pre @-@ ordered by the day of its release on May 12 , 2011 . From these sales , Prototype and VisualArt 's donated 22 @,@ 415 @,@ 069 yen .
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= Town of Christchurch by @-@ election , 1860 =
The Town of Christchurch by @-@ election in 1860 was triggered by the resignation of Richard Packer as the Member of the House of Representatives for the Town of Christchurch electorate , and occurred during the term of the 2nd New Zealand Parliament . The previous representative of the electorate , the politician Henry Sewell , had returned after three years in England and the general expectation was that Sewell would be the sole contender for election . The Lyttelton Times wrote several provocative editorials , generally endorsing Sewell for his obvious ability , but criticising him for not publicly talking about his policies and plans . Sewell eventually arranged a public meeting the evening prior to nomination day ; this was the only public meeting during the election campaign . After a lengthy address , which was favourably received by the Lyttelton Times , a second contender for the office put his name forward at that meeting : the publican Michael Hart . Sewell , one of New Zealand 's most senior politicians at the time , was successful against the political novice Hart .
= = Background = =
= = = Candidates = = =
Henry Sewell had first come to New Zealand as the deputy chairman ( a paid position ) of the Canterbury Association in February 1853 . The Association was in financial crisis and Sewell was instrumental in resolving the debt issues for Canterbury Province . In August 1853 Sewell stood in New Zealand 's first general election , winning the Town of Christchurch electorate , which he represented in the 1st New Zealand Parliament . Sewell was re @-@ elected in the 1855 election and also elected onto the Canterbury Provincial Council for the Lyttelton electorate in 1855 . In May 1856 , he became New Zealand 's first Premier . He resigned from Parliament later in 1856 but remained an unofficial member of Parliament 's executive and returned to England on ministerial duties . Sewell returned to New Zealand in early 1859 and again took up a previous role as Colonial Treasurer . By all accounts , Sewell was a senior politician .
Michael Hart arrived in Lyttelton with his wife and their two sons on the Cressy on 27 December 1850 , one of the First Four Ships reaching Canterbury . Before he came out to New Zealand , he had been a plumber . Hart founded the White Hart on the corner of High and Cashel Streets , the first hotel in Christchurch . The hotel opened on 15 November 1851 , less than a year after the organised settlement of Christchurch . In December 1852 , Hart catered for 150 guests who had assembled to farewell John Robert Godley , the founder of Canterbury who returned to England after his short stay in the colony . A well @-@ known man , Hart had no political experience ; he was never elected onto the Canterbury Provincial Council .
= = = Campaign = = =
After Sewell 's resignation from Parliament in 1856 , Richard Packer won the resulting 1856 by @-@ election . Packer resigned from Parliament on 28 December 1859 , triggering the 1860 by @-@ election . The resignation was announced to the public via a statement in the Canterbury Standard , a newspaper published by Joseph Brittan . This was accompanied by a brief statement by Sewell , offering himself for election again . Hart accused Packer of having been a locum tenens ( i.e. a place holder ) for Sewell .
In an editorial , the Lyttelton Times welcomed Sewell 's intention of representing the electorate again , but criticised him for the briefness of his statement . The newspaper 's expectation was that Sewell should publicly state what his policies were , and not just rely on his past representation in Parliament . On 7 January 1860 , Sewell placed an advertisement in the Lyttelton Times , inviting electors to a meeting at the Mechanics ' Institute next to the Christchurch Town Hall on Friday , 13 January .
In an editorial on 11 January , the Lyttelton Times implied that Sewell 's election was a foregone conclusion ; no other candidates having come forward , so Sewell would simply be declared elected on nomination night . The editorial urged Sewell to address the issue of improved education when he again represented Christchurch in Parliament . On 14 January , the Lyttelton Times repeated and increased its criticism of Sewell 's policies and plans being unknown to the public , and it talked of the option of rejecting Sewell . An editorial said of Sewell : " a thick impenetrable haze has hitherto enveloped his relations with the public . " In 1860 , the Lyttelton Times was still based in Lyttelton ( the newspaper only moved to Christchurch in 1863 ) and was a bi @-@ weekly . When it went to print after the meeting in the Town Hall the previous night , the editorial expressed disappointment that they could not report on the meeting called by Sewell .
This ongoing criticism caused Sewell to provide his own report to the Lyttelton Times of the meeting with electors . The editor compared this report with the one supplied by their own reporter and , containing no substantial differences , decided to print Sewell 's account in the next edition on 18 January . The editorial defended the newspaper 's critical stance : " We disclaim all hostile feelings against Mr. Sewell ... we have not decided to thwart but to understand him . " The editor welcomed Sewell 's detailed address and expressed general satisfaction with Sewell 's statements . By finally addressing the electors , Sewell " removed the only objection urged against him . "
The meeting on 17 January was crowded . Many attendees were not electors , as franchise was attached to land ownership in excess of £ 50 , or yearly rental over £ 10 , and the resulting roll was only about 160 names long , including absentee owners in England . There had been rumours beforehand that somebody would come forward to oppose Sewell . William Thomson was elected to chair the meeting . Sewell spoke at length about various issues : that he should be elected because of the service that he had given Canterbury as their representative when in financial crisis , that he even delayed his departure to England to resolve the issues , that he had no conflict of interest with the steam ship company that provided New Zealand 's postal service with England , that he did not have land holdings in the North Island more valuable than holdings in Canterbury , that he gave qualified support to the Lyttelton Rail Tunnel project and he gave his reasons for leaving the Stafford Ministry so soon after his return to the colony last year . He disagreed with Stafford 's government on some issues . The two most important disagreements were land policy , where Sewell wanted the land revenue to be retained by the provincial governments , rather than the southern provinces pay a high proportion of their revenue to enable purchase of land in the north , and native policy , where Sewell predicted that the land policy being pursued would result in strong conflict with Māori ; in fact , the First Taranaki War started in March 1860 . As a solution , Sewell suggested the possible separation of the North Island and the South Island into separate countries ; this was the first time , as far as the editor of the Lyttelton Times was aware , that such a suggestion had been made in public by a politician . The politician who is today known to have favoured separation is Julius Vogel , and he started campaigning for this idea in 1862 . The Lyttelton Times argued , against the objection of many , that such an idea had merit for further consideration .
After Sewell had spoken , Michael Hart briefly addressed those present . He announced himself as a candidate and vouched his support for the Lyttelton Rail Tunnel project .
= = Nomination = =
The nomination meeting was held on 18 January at the Town Hall . The returning officer , John Hall , read the writ . Richard Packer proposed Sewell as a candidate , and William Wilson seconded this . Hart was proposed by Mr Sutcliffe and seconded by Mr Rees . Both Sewell and Hart then spoke . Sewell stressed the importance of electing the right person , with reference to his experience and Hart being an unknown quantity . Hart argued that it was his right to put himself forward . Whilst Hart could not say that he received his qualifications from Oxford or Cambridge , he had obtained his " knowledge from the university of common sense " . He further argued that he was as able as Packer , whom he regarded as a locum tenens for Sewell . He criticised Sewell for not residing in Christchurch .
The returning officer , John Hall , after no other candidate came forward , asked for a show of hands and declared it to be in favour of Sewell , upon which Hart demanded a poll . Hall declared that the poll be held at the Town Hall the following day ( 19 January ) , from 9 am to 4 pm .
= = Results = =
110 votes were cast in the election . At the time , voting was done by the elector telling the election official his choice of candidate ( the secret ballot was introduced in 1871 ) and as a tally was being kept by interested parties , the result was immediately known . Sewell won the election by 77 votes to 33 .
Sewell served until the end of the term in November 1860 . At the end of the session , he was dissatisfied with the actions of his former fellow Government ministers and did not seek re @-@ election . Instead , he was appointed Registrar @-@ General of Lands by Edward Stafford . In August 1861 , he was appointed to the New Zealand Legislative Council so that he could become part of the 2nd Fox Ministry as Attorney @-@ General .
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= Chew Magna =
Chew Magna is a village and civil parish within the Chew Valley in the Unitary Authority of Bath and North East Somerset , in the Ceremonial county of Somerset , England . The parish has a population of 1 @,@ 149 .
To the south of the village is Chew Valley Lake . The village is on the B3130 road , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Bristol , 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Bath , 13 miles ( 21 km ) from the city of Wells , and 6 miles ( 10 km ) from Bristol Airport .
The village is close to the northern edge of the Mendip Hills ( a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ) , and was designated a conservation area in 1978 . There are many listed buildings reflecting the history of the village . The River Chew flows through the village . Just outside the village is Chew Magna Reservoir : this small Bristol Water supply reservoir intercepts the Winford Brook .
The village has approximately 1 @,@ 200 residents . There is one primary school , and an adjacent secondary school , several shops and small businesses , three churches , and three pubs serving the area . There is also a football pitch and children 's play area . The village frequently wins regional categories in the Calor Village of the Year competition , and is currently moving towards zero waste status , having been described as " probably the greenest parish in Britain " .
= = History = =
Chew Magna has long been the largest village in the district , and can trace its importance back to Saxon times . It was a thriving woollen centre in the Middle Ages - in 1086 for example having 108 households rendering £ 46 per year , most of its land being cultivated and having five mills , 29 cattle , 36 pigs , 448 sheep and 46 goats . It acquired market town and non @-@ represented borough status . The picture was not entirely benign as 22 of these households were serfs .
The manor of Chew was held by the Bishops of Bath and Wells from 1062 to 1548 , and therefore was called Chew Episcopi or Bishop 's Chew . The bishops built a palace near the church of St Andrews , which was visited by Henry III in 1250 . Chew Court is a surviving part of the palace and has its adjacent well head also listed for its long heritage .
According to Robinson its manors , lay and religious holdings formed an episcopal property held , as overlord , by Giso , the last Saxon bishop and the name Magna comes from the Latin meaning ' the greater ' . This is supported by the Domesday Book which was made to specify the 1086 and the pre @-@ conquest holder , in both instances given as the " Bishop of Wells " . Hence its benefice was from the early medieval period converted from a rectory to a vicarage , with substantial tythings adjoining named Bishop Sutton , Knowle with Knighton Sutton , North Elm , and Stone . Furthermore , it had the living of Dundry annexed to it . By 1848 all tithes had been commuted and the sole improprietor is listed in 1848 of the great tithes as George Smyth .
The parish was part of the hundred of Chew .
In the eastern corner of the south aisle of the church is a monument of the Baber family , who formerly had large possessions in the parish . Inserted in a window of the aisle , is a wooden effigy , supposed to be of Sir John de Hautville , a Knight of Henry III 's , who owned the northeastern estate named Norton Hautville , now Norton Hawkfield : in the same directional corner of the church are monuments to the Strach ( e ) y family who lived at Sutton Court .
= = = After the Dissolution of the Monasteries = = =
Since about 1600 , the name changed to Chew Magna as this has been the most important of the several villages along the banks of the River Chew and reflecting the reduced wealth of the established church from the Dissolution of the Monasteries onwards .
Around 1700 the Lord of the Manor was Sir William Jones , the Attorney General of England and in the 1820s it was the seat of Lord Lyttelton . Until about 1880 the village had toll roads and a toll house to collect the fees .
By 1848 the population was partly employed in coal mines in Bishop Sutton , and in the manufacture of stockings and of edge tools to a limited extent ; formerly there was a considerable factory for cloth .
During the late 19th and 20th centuries the importance of the wool trade in the village declined and it became largely a dormitory area for the cities of Bristol and Bath , although it has continued to be the commercial centre of the valley .
= = = Second World War = = =
During German bombing raids targeted on Bristol , many bombs fell in the parish : Ruen House on the road to Chew Hill was bombed . The nearly flat area just east of the Y @-@ junction on Chew Hill was initially chosen as a Starfish site area to be lit by fires to simulate Bristol in flames . Later , about half way between North Chew Farm and Manor Farm , North Wick was an area secured by Royal Air Force personnel , lit by fires , and with " automatic " guns to simulate anti @-@ aircraft guns . There was also a genuine heavy anti aircraft battery at Chewhill farm . The area was guarded by pill boxes of which one remains on the west side of Blacklands ( map reference ST579640 ) .
= = = Chew Valley Lake Construction = = =
The construction of Chew Valley Lake in the 1950s brought opportunities for leisure and tourism .
= = = 1968 storm = = =
On 10 – 11 July 1968 a storm brought heavy rainfall to the Chew valley and Dundry , with 175 millimetres ( 7 in ) falling in 18 hours on Chew Stoke , double the area 's average rainfall for the whole of July , and flooded 88 properties in Chew Magna with many being inundated with 8 feet ( 2 m ) of water . The bridge on the road to Dundry was demolished .
= = = Telephone exchange = = =
The Chew Magna telephone exchange was manually operated until the 1950s . An important number Chew Magna 2 was that of Dr Terrell Hughes : the exchange operators could often locate him in an emergency even if he was away from his home and surgery . The manual exchange served most of the Chew valley and even East Dundry .
= = Government and politics = =
Chew Magna has its own parish council , which has some responsibility for local issues , and is part of the Chew Valley North Ward , which is represented by one councillor on the Bath and North East Somerset Unitary Authority , which has wider responsibilities for services such as education , refuse , tourism , etc . The village is a part of the North East Somerset constituency , and is part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2001 Census the Chew Valley North Ward ( which includes Chew Magna and Chew Stoke ) , had 2 @,@ 307 residents , living in 911 households , with an average age of 42 @.@ 3 years . Of these , 77 % of residents described their health as ' good ' ; 21 % of 16- to 74 @-@ year @-@ olds had no qualifications ; and the area had an unemployment rate of 1 @.@ 3 % of all economically active people aged 16 – 74 . In the Index of Multiple Deprivation 2004 , it was ranked at 26 @,@ 243 out of 32 @,@ 482 wards in England , where 1 was the most deprived LSOA and 32 @,@ 482 the least deprived .
= = Schools = =
Chew Magna Primary School won a Becta award for the use of ICT in Practice in 2005 for using the adventure exploration computer game Myst to support literacy and communication .
Chew Valley School is the main secondary school ( 11 – 18 years ) for the valley . It is situated between Chew Magna and Chew Stoke . The latest ( 2015 ) Ofsted Inspection Report describes this specialist Performing Arts College as a mixed comprehensive school with 1 @,@ 160 pupils on roll , including 186 students in the sixth form . It says the school is popular and oversubscribed , and has been successful in gaining a number of national and regional awards . It received a " good " rating overall , down from " outstanding " at the last inspection ( 2011 )
= = Famous residents = =
John Strachey ( 1671 – 1743 ) , geologist
John Sanger ( 1816 @-@ 1889 ) , a circus proprietor , lived in the village in the 19th century
Richard Brock ( 1938- ) , a Natural history film producer
Dr Phil Hammond ( 1962- ) , a General Practitioner and comedian
Jekka McVicar , herbalist .
= = Go Zero project = =
Chew Magna is the home of the " Go Zero " project , which promotes education for sustainability at all levels in society , seeking to conserve and make improvements to the environment in the UK and overseas . The four groups within Go Zero are : Transport and Energy ( which includes Dragonflyer Mobility , a plan to develop a range of integrated services that offer communities in the West of England cost @-@ effective , flexible and environmentally sustainable transport ) ; People and Consumption ( farmers ' markets , local food , skill swaps ) ; Converging World ( which supports campaigns and initiatives for social justice and development and is currently pursuing Fair Trade status for Chew Magna ) ; and Waste and Recycling . It is based at Tunbridge Mill , a post @-@ medieval watermill .
= = Sport and recreation = =
Chew Magna has a King George 's Field in memorial to King George V. Gymnasium facilities , squash courts , badminton etc . , and outdoor all @-@ weather pitches are available at the Chew Valley Leisure Centre between Chew Magna and Chew Stoke . There is a range of clubs and societies for young and old , including Scout groups , gardening society , and the Women 's Institute . There is a cricket pitch and teams in Chew Magna .
In 2011 , residents of Chew Magna and surrounding villages banded together to form a new charity , the Chew Valley Youth Trust , to combat the declining provision in leisure and recreational activities for young people in the region . In response to the closure of local Youth Clubs and declining state support for local transport , the charity combats issues of rural isolation and provides young residents with recreational activities .
= = Buildings of interest = =
= = = Church = = =
St Andrew 's Church dates from the 12th century with a large 15th century pinnacled sandstone tower , a Norman font and a rood screen that is the full width of the church . In the church are several memorials to the Stracheys of Sutton Court together with a wooden effigy of a Knight cross @-@ legged and leaning on one elbow , in 15th century armour , thought to be of Sir John de Hauteville or a descendant , and possibly transferred from a church at Norton Hautville before it was demolished . Another effigy in the north chapel is of Sir John St Loe , who was over 7 feet ( 2 m ) tall , and his lady . The armoured figure is 7 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 24 m ) long and his feet rest on a lion , while those of his lady rest on a dog . The church was restored in 1860 and has a register commencing in 1562 . The tower is about one hundred feet tall and was probably built about 1440 . There has been a clock on the tower since the early 1700s . There is a peal of eight bells in the tower . Tenor 28 cwt ( 3 @,@ 136 lb / 1 @,@ 422 kg ) in C. The original five bells were re @-@ cast by the celebrated Thomas Bilbie of Chew Stoke in 1735 to make a peal of six , and in 1898 four of these were re @-@ cast and two were repaired by Messrs. Mears and Stainbank of London to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria . Two additional bells , the gift of Brigadier Ommanney , were added in 1928 to complete the octave , which still contains two of the Bilbie bells . The present clock , installed in 1903 , plays a verse of a hymn every four hours , at 8 am , noon , 4 and 8 pm , with a different hymn tune for every day of the week . The church is a Grade I listed building .
The churchyard contains several monuments which are Grade II listed buildings in their own right : the churchyard cross , Edgell monument , Fowler monument and a group of three unidentified monuments . In addition there is an early 19th @-@ century limestone round @-@ topped stone which bears the inscription to William Fowler " shot by an Highwayman on Dundry Hill 14 June 1814 aged 32 years " . Within the church are wooden plaques commemorating the nineteen people from the village who died in World War I and seven from World War II , and a bronze plaque to an individual soldier who died in 1917 .
= = = Other buildings = = =
Next to the church is the Church House , which is also known as the Old School Room . The upstairs room was the local school from the mid or early 15th century , with the village poorhouse below . This has been a venue for social activity in the village and in 1971 underwent major renovation . It is a Grade II * listed building . Also close to the church is Chew Court , which was originally a bishop 's palace . It was largely rebuilt in 1656 , from which a little survives as the Chew Court of today including an Elizabethan doorway with Doric pilasters . The room over the gatehouse is said to have been used as a court @-@ room , with the turrets used for holding prisoners . Chew Court is a Grade II * listed building .
The Manor House has Tudor origins , including a fireplace dated 1656 , with a Gothic exterior from 1874 , largely redesigned by John Norton . Amongst the brought @-@ in pieces in the house are two South German reliefs , " The Martyrdoms of St Catherine and St Sebastian " , from an altar of the early 16th century . There are also a series of panels in the Floris style , probably Flemish and with a repeating date 1562 . From 1680 to 1844 the Manor House was the home of prominent Quaker families including the Vickris , the Summers and the Harfords . William Penn preached here in 1687 . The house has 4 @.@ 9 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) of gardens laid out in the 19th century . The house is a Grade II * listed building and now forms part of the Sacred Heart Convent School . Two of the stables attached to the Manor House are Grade II listed .
The high street contains many old buildings . The Beeches was built in 1762 , with walls , railings , gates and piers of the same date , although the side wings were added later . Acacia House and Igbetti House , which was formerly known as Myrtle House , are from the same period , while Barle House , Holly House , The Sycamores and Portugal House are slightly more recent .
On Battle Lane is the 18th century Rookstone House , which was formerly the end house in a row of seven , and The Rookery and its lodge , which were built in the early 19th century . Harford Square is dominated by the construction , in 1817 , of Harford House and its accompanying stable block .
Just south of the village is the medieval Tun Bridge with three pointed arches including double arch rings , spanning 60 feet ( 18 m ) over the river , approached along one of the high pavements that are a feature of the village centre . It has three pointed arches , two of which have double arch rings built in two orders . At its widest point it is 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) wide and 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) in the centre . The two main arches are separated by a sharp cutwater 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) and tapering to 8 inches ( 20 @.@ 3 cm ) above which a 4 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 cm ) string course runs throughout the length of bridge . The bridge is thought to date from the late 15th century and is a Grade II listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument ( Avon No. 159 ) . The raised pavement and steps are themselves also listed Grade II .
Surrounding the village are several historic farmhouses including Dumper 's Farmhouse , which dates from the 15th century , and Knole Hill Farmhouse , dated 1763 .
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= Tony Marchant ( cyclist ) =
Tony Marchant , also known as " Tippy " Marchant ( born 28 August 1937 ) is a former Australian track cyclist who along with Ian Browne won the 2000 m tandem event at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne . Marchant had little formal training and only took up the sport at the age of 16 because his friends liked the sport . In 1955 , Marchant shot to prominence after only two years in the sport , winning the 500 m time trial and the 5 mile event at the Junior Australian Championships . This resulted him being approached by Browne to team up in early 1956 and they promptly won the tandem event at the national championships to earn national selection . The pair were eliminated after losing their first two races but were given a reprieve when the Soviet Union pair were hospitalised in a crash and forced to withdraw . Thereafter Marchant and Browne were unbeaten and progressed to an unlikely Olympic gold . In 1957 , Marchant retired to play Australian rules football , again basing his decision on his friends ' interests . In 1958 he made a brief comeback as a professional , but with only sporadic success , he retired in 1961 .
= = Early years = =
Marchant was born in Chelsea , Victoria , where he grew up . His father was a member of the Royal Australian Navy , who later became a bank manager . His father died when Marchant was young . This left his mother , a nurse , to raise Marchant and his four sisters and three brothers . Unlike his siblings , Marchant was interested in sport from a young age . He particularly took a liking to boxing , and won the school boxing championship at St Bede 's Christian Brothers College . In his teenage years , he fought about 25 bouts with the Chelsea Youth Club .
Influenced by three of his friends , Marchant took up cycling in 1953 at the age of 16 . He earned some money from selling flowers and delivering newspapers and bought a semi @-@ racing bike . Later , he was a given a proper racing bike from his first trainer Merv Norton .
Marchant began at the Chelsea Amateur Cycling Club , which did not even have a banked cycling track and was trained by Norton and Maurie Cramer . Marchant rose to prominence by winning the 500 metres ( m ) time trial at the 1955 Victorian Championships for juniors in only his second year of competition . He then won the 5 mile title and the 500 m time trial at the Australian Junior Championships . He added a silver medal in the sprint .
Marchant first teamed up with Ian Browne at the start of 1956 , just ten months before the start of the Melbourne Olympics . The older Browne selected Marchant because of the pure speed that Marchant had exhibited in the past year . They were a contrasting pair . Marchant was a short man of 170 cm ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) and 65 kg ( 143 lb ) , while Browne stood at 186 cm ( 6 @.@ 10 ft ) and 86 kg ( 190 lb ) , unusually tall for a cyclist . For a final test run before the pair formally committed to racing together , the pair simply had a few tandem sprints around the track . Browne sat in the front seat , while Marchant sat in the rear seat . The pair went on to win the 2000 m tandem event at the Australian Championships in 1956 , but going into the Melbourne Olympics , nobody , themselves included , regarded them as realistic medal chances . However , their mentor , former champion Billy Guyatt convinced them that they had the potential to make progress at international level .
Their training schedule consisted of individual training two or three times a week and two days a week of coordinated tandem training during the Olympic year . Marchant 's main tactical responsibility was to look to the outside for impending attacks while Browne patrolled the inside . Marchant devised a signal system , such as a head bump on Browne 's hip , or even a verbal shout when the opposition made a move .
= = Olympics = =
Ten nations were entered in the tandem competition , and in the first round , they were drawn with Germany and South Africa , who fielded their silver medallist pairing of Tom Shardelow and Ray Robinson from the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki . The Australians made their move too early and led at the ringing of the bell at the start of the last lap , but they were overhauled well before the line as they faded in the final straight . Browne and Marchant were given another chance in the repechage round later in the same day . The Australians lead for three quarters of the distance , but were overhauled by their Czechoslovakian opponent in the final metres and were defeated in a photo finish . This would normally have meant that the Australians would have been eliminated , however the final repechage between the Soviet Union and the Germans resulted in a tangle , resulting in a heavy pile @-@ up . Neither teams finished the race , but the Soviets were hospitalised . The cycling officials decided that the bruised Germans would be forced to compete in a repechage sequel against the losers in the previous repechages to qualify . This allowed the United States and the Australians a reprieve .
The Australians seized their good fortune and set their fastest time to date with 11 @.@ 0 seconds ( s ) . Having been beaten twice after leading out , the Australians sat back before sweeping past the Germans and Americans in the final lap . Australia were again drawn against South Africa in their quarter @-@ final , who had defeated them easily in the heats . This time they equalled the fastest team in the competition over the final 200 m , clocking 10 @.@ 8 s to progress to the final , where they faced the Italy . Giuseppe Ogna and Cesare Pinarello appeared to be in control at the start of the final lap . They had moved alongside the Australians with one and a half laps to go , but the Australians surprised them at the start of the final lap . The Italians came back to pull level at the start of the back straight , but the Australians held them off and pulled away to win by a length and a half . The Italians lodged a protest for interference but it was dismissed . The Australians finished in a time of 10 @.@ 8 s and Browne later claimed that he was convinced by the performance that they would win the gold medal .
The final took place on the third day of racing . The Australians came to the conclusion that their wheels and tyres were too heavy , so they sought to buy better cycling equipment from the defeated Germans . The Germans agreed , saying " Have ours and you will win the gold medal . " Australia were again pitted against the Czechoslovak Vaclav Machek and Ladislav Foucek . One of the reasons behind Australia 's return to form had been the return of Guyatt to a mentoring role . Guyatt had assisted them at the national championships , but they were assigned to another coach at the Olympics . Guyatt was regarded as a marketing @-@ style motivator and he attempted to give Browne and Marchant a psychological boost . Equipped with their new machines , Browne and Marchant employed a tactical trick devised by Guyatt . The Australian staff had noticed that the Czechoslovaks had always made their final burst from a certain point from the finish . During the final , Australian team manager Bill Young stood at the said point as the Australian led out . When Browne came to the point , he pulled upwards and pre @-@ emptively blocked the expected Czechoslovakian attack . As the Australians veered out to cut off the opposition attack , the two pairs made hip contact . This helped to stifle the attack and Australia went on to win the gold medal . Upon returning to his home town , he was mobbed by thousands of schoolchildren who had come to welcome him , and he was given a civic reception .
= = Later years = =
The following year in 1957 , Marchant unexpectedly left the sport , much to the dismay of the cycling community , which believed that he would continue to more success . He switched to playing Australian rules football because that was what his friends did . He felt that fitting in with his friends was more important , saying " I was a funny bloke . I did a lot on brilliance rather than hard work . I preferred to do what my mates were doing . "
After a year away from the bike , Marchant returned to cycling and turned professional in 1958 . Within a year he left for Europe with Ron Murray and Alan McLellan on the professional racing circuit . The trip was unsuccessful . The group did not take their track bikes with them , with Marchant ordering one from Italy . The equipment never arrived and he competed in Belgium and Copenhagen on borrowed bikes . Marchant only displayed glimpses of his ability , defeating the Italian champion in one outing and also winning the La Trobe race in Tasmania . Marchant then retired in 1961 .
During his cycling career , Marchant had worked as an apprentice shoe cutter . After his retirement , he continued along the same line of work , spending his entire working career in the shoe industry , designing and marketing women 's fashion shoes under the brand Imps and Cadets . He married in 1962 and has two children .
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= 2013 American League Wild Card tie @-@ breaker game =
The 2013 American League Wild Card tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 2013 regular season , played between the Texas Rangers and Tampa Bay Rays to determine the second participant in the 2013 American League ( AL ) Wild Card Game . It was played at the Rangers Ballpark in Arlington on September 30 , 2013 . The Rays defeated the Rangers , 5 – 2 , and advanced to the AL Wild Card Game against the Cleveland Indians at Progressive Field , which they won 4 – 0 ; the Rangers failed to qualify for the postseason .
The tie @-@ breaker game was necessary after both teams finished the season with win – loss records of 91 – 71 and thus tied for the second Wild Card position in the AL . The Rangers were awarded home field for the game , as they won the regular season series against the Rays , four @-@ games @-@ to @-@ three . The game was televised on TBS . It was the fourth tie @-@ breaker in MLB history for a Wild Card spot , although it was the first since MLB adopted its current format of two Wild Card teams playing in a Wild Card Game in 2012 . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
In Major League Baseball the two teams with the best record in each league who do not win a division play in the Wild Card Game . A number of teams were in competition for these Wild Card spots , along with their divisional competition . The Rangers spent over 80 days leading the American League West and shared the lead as late as September 4 . The Rays spent only a few days leading the American League East , but held a share of the lead as late as August 24 . The Cleveland Indians did not lead the American League Central after July 2 but remained close throughout the season and ultimately finished just a single game back of the Central champion Detroit Tigers .
Although other teams including the Kansas City Royals , Baltimore Orioles , and New York Yankees had vied for a Wild Card spot , the Indians , Rangers , and Rays all remained in contention until the end of the season . Entering the final day of the scheduled regular season , on which all three teams played , the Indians had a 91 – 70 record while both the Rangers and Rays had 90 – 71 records . These were the best non @-@ division @-@ leading records in the American League . Thus , the possibility existed ( had the Indians lost and the Rays and Rangers won ) for a three @-@ way tie for the two Wild Card spots , which would have required several tie @-@ breaker games to settle . However , all three teams won , leaving the Indians definitively in the Wild Card Game at 92 – 70 and the Rays and Rangers tied at 91 – 71 for the second spot .
The Indians finished the season strong , winning their last 10 games to clinch their Wild Card berth . The Rays were 16 – 12 in September , winning 8 of their last 10 . The Rangers were just 12 – 15 in September , although they also won eight of their final 10 games . Home field advantage for the tie @-@ breaker game was awarded to the Rangers , as they had won the season series against the Rays 4 games to 3 .
= = Game summary = =
Desmond Jennings opened the first inning with a single , but was thrown out at second base trying to stretch the hit into a double . Wil Myers then walked , advanced to third base on singles by Ben Zobrist and Evan Longoria , and finally scored on a sacrifice fly by Delmon Young . Rays starter David Price struck out leadoff batter Ian Kinsler , then allowed a walk to Elvis Andrus but picked him off and finished the inning by retiring Alex Ríos . The score remained 1 – 0 until the top of the third inning , when Jennings drew a walk and scored on a home run by Longoria to give the Rays a 3 – 0 lead . The Rangers struck right back in the bottom half , as Craig Gentry led off the inning with a single . After advancing to second on a Leonys Martín groundout , he scored on a single to right field by Kinsler . The Rays scored again in the sixth , as Longoria doubled to lead off the inning , and advanced to third base on a groundout by Young . The next batter , David DeJesus , hit a double to right field that scored Longoria and put the Rays ahead , 4 – 1 . Rangers reliever Alexi Ogando entered the game with one out and recorded the final two outs to end the inning .
After a single and a stolen base from Andrus , Ríos doubled in the bottom half of the sixth to cut the score to 4 – 2 . A small controversy arose in the top of the seventh inning . Longoria and Myers were on first and second base respectively with two outs when Young hit a line drive to center field . Replays showed that the ball bounced into Leonys Martín 's ( the Rangers ' center fielder ) glove after hitting the ground , making it a trap and therefore should have been a hit . However , the umpires ruled the play an out , ending the inning without a run scoring . Ultimately , the issue did not affect the outcome . The Rays added onto their lead in the ninth inning when Sam Fuld stole third and a scored on a throwing error from Rangers reliever Tanner Scheppers , extending their lead to 5 – 2 . Price closed the game in the ninth , recording three straight outs and finishing off a complete game .
= = Aftermath = =
David Price recorded the first complete game in a tie @-@ breaker game since Al Leiter in 1999 . The game counted as a regular season game in baseball statistics . For example , Evan Longoria 's third @-@ inning home run broke Stan Musial 's record for the most home runs in the last game of the season , setting the mark at seven . He went 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 with a double , a home run , and two RBI in the game overall . This left him 11 @-@ for @-@ 19 with seven home runs and ten RBIs in season finales from 2009 – 2013 . Tampa Bay 's win clinched the team 's fourth post @-@ season berth in franchise history . The Rays played the Cleveland Indians in the American League Wild Card Game and advanced to the American League Division Series ( ALDS ) with a 4 @-@ 0 win . However , the Rays lost to the Boston Red Sox in the ALDS , 3 games to 1 .
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= Graham Chapman =
Graham Arthur Chapman ( 8 January 1941 – 4 October 1989 ) was an English comedian , writer , actor , and one of the six members of the surreal comedy group Monty Python . He played authority figures such as the Colonel and the lead role in two Python films , Holy Grail and Life of Brian .
Chapman was born in Leicester and was raised in Melton Mowbray . He enjoyed science , acting and comedy , and after graduating from Emmanuel College , Cambridge and St Bartholomew 's Medical College , he turned down a career as a doctor to be a comedian . Chapman established a writing partnership with John Cleese , which reached its critical peak with Monty Python during the 1970s . Chapman left Britain for Los Angeles in the late 1970s , where he attempted to be a success on American television , speaking on the college circuit and producing the pirate film Yellowbeard , before returning to Britain in the early 1980s .
Chapman was openly homosexual and a strong supporter of gay rights , and was in a relationship with David Sherlock for most of his adult life . He was an alcoholic during his time at Cambridge and the early Python years , quitting shortly before working on Life of Brian . Chapman died of tonsil and spinal cancer on 4 October 1989 , on the eve of Monty Python 's 20th anniversary , and his life and legacy were commemorated at a private memorial service at St Bartholomew 's with the other Pythons .
= = Early life and education = =
Graham Arthur Chapman was born on 8 January 1941 at the Stoneygate Nursing Home , Stoneygate , Leicester , the son of policeman Walter Chapman and Edith Towers . He had an elder brother , John , who was born in 1936 . One of Chapman 's earliest memories was seeing the remains of Polish airmen who had suffered an aeroplane accident near Leicester , later saying the horrific sights of this remained in his memory .
Chapman was educated at Melton Mowbray Grammar School . He showed a strong affinity for science , sports and amateur dramatics , and was singled out for attention when a local paper reviewed his performance of Mark Antony in Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar . Graham and John Chapman were both avid fans of radio comedy , being especially fond of The Goon Show and Robert Moreton 's skill of telling jokes the wrong way round and reversing punchlines . Biographer Jim Yoakum said " the radio shows didn 't necessarily make him laugh . "
In 1959 , Chapman began to study medicine at Emmanuel College , Cambridge . He joined the Cambridge Footlights , where he first began writing with John Cleese . Following graduation , Chapman joined the Footlights show " Cambridge Circus " and toured New Zealand , deferring his medical studies for a year . After the tour , he continued his studies at St Bartholomew 's Medical College , but became torn between whether to pursue a career in medicine or acting . His brother John later said , " He wasn 't ever driven to go into medicine ... it wasn 't his life 's ambition . "
= = Career = =
= = = Pre @-@ Python career = = =
Following their Footlights success , Chapman and Cleese began to write professionally for the BBC , initially for David Frost but also for Marty Feldman . Frost had recruited Cleese , and in turn Cleese decided he needed Chapman as a sounding board . Chapman also contributed sketches to the radio series I 'm Sorry , I 'll Read That Again and wrote material on his own and with Bill Oddie . He wrote for The Illustrated Weekly Hudd ( starring Roy Hudd ) , Cilla Black , This is Petula Clark , and This Is Tom Jones . Chapman , Cleese , and Tim Brooke @-@ Taylor later joined Feldman in the television comedy series At Last the 1948 Show . It was Chapman 's first significant role as a performer as well as a writer and he displayed a gift for deadpan comedy ( such as in the sketch " The Minister Who Falls to Pieces " ) and imitating various British dialects . The series was the first to feature Chapman 's sketch of wrestling with himself .
Despite the show 's success , Chapman was still unsure about abandoning his medical career . In between the two series of At Last the 1948 Show he completed his studies at St Bartholomew 's , and became professionally registered as a doctor . Chapman and Cleese also wrote for the long @-@ running television comedy series Doctor in the House , and both appeared on a one @-@ off television special , How to Irritate People alongside Brooke @-@ Taylor and Michael Palin . One of Cleese and Chapman 's sketches , featuring a used car salesman refusing to believe a customer 's model had broken down , became the inspiration for the Dead Parrot sketch . Chapman also co @-@ wrote several episodes of Doctor in the House 's follow up , Doctor in Charge , with Bernard McKenna .
= = = Monty Python = = =
In 1969 , Chapman and Cleese joined the other Pythons including Terry Gilliam , Eric Idle , Terry Jones , and Palin for their sketch comedy show Flying Circus . The group 's writing was split into well @-@ defined teams , with Chapman collaborating almost exclusively with Cleese . Chapman was particularly keen to remove stereotypical punchlines in sketches and created The Colonel , who would stop them in mid @-@ flow by saying they were " too silly " .
Although the pair were officially equal partners , Cleese later thought that Chapman contributed comparatively little in the way of direct writing , saying " he would come in , say something marvellous and then drift off in his own mind . " The other Pythons have said that Chapman 's biggest contribution in the writing room was an intuition for what was funny . Gilliam later recalled that " Graham would do the nudge that would push it into something extraordinary . " The show was an immediate success , and Chapman was delighted to learn that medical students at St Bartholomew 's crowded round the television in the bar to watch it . Chapman was frequently late for rehearsing or recording , leading to the other Pythons calling him " the late Graham Chapman " .
Chapman 's main contribution to the Dead Parrot sketch , derived from the How to Irritate People piece and involving a customer returning a faulty toaster , was " How can we make this madder ? " He decided to replace the toaster with a dead Norwegian Blue parrot . Cleese said that he and Chapman believed that " there was something very funny there , if we could find the right context for it " . The group felt that Chapman had the best acting skills in the group . Cleese complimented Chapman by saying that he was " particularly a wonderful actor " .
Chapman played the lead role in two Python films , Holy Grail and Life of Brian . He was chosen to play the lead in Holy Grail because of the group 's respect towards his straight acting skills , and because the other members wanted to play lesser , funnier , characters themselves . Chapman did not mind being filmed fully nude in front of a crowd in Life of Brian , but the scene , filmed in Tunisia , caused problems with the female Muslim extras .
= = = Other work = = =
Chapman and Douglas Adams wrote a pilot for a TV series in 1975 , Out of the Trees , but it received poor ratings after being broadcast at the same time as Match of the Day and only this initial episode was produced . In 1978 , Chapman co @-@ wrote the comedy film The Odd Job with McKenna , and starred as one of the main characters . Chapman wanted his friend Keith Moon to play a co @-@ lead role alongside him , but Moon could not pass an acting test , so the part went to David Jason who had previously appeared on Do Not Adjust Your Set with Pythons Idle , Jones , and Palin . The film was moderately successful .
During the 1970s , Chapman became increasingly concerned about the Python 's income and finances . He moved to Los Angeles in the late 1970s to avoid British income tax . He guest @-@ starred on several television series including The Big Show .
In 1976 , Chapman began writing a pirate film , Yellowbeard , which came out of conversations between Chapman and Moon while in Los Angeles . Moon had always wanted to play Long John Silver , so Chapman began to write a script for him . Moon died in 1978 and the work stalled , eventually being rewritten by McKenna , then by Peter Cook . The film , which starred Chapman as the eponymous pirate , also featured appearances from Cook , Marty Feldman , Cleese , Idle , Spike Milligan , and Cheech & Chong . It marks the last appearance of Feldman , who suffered a fatal heart attack in December 1982 . The project was fraught with financial difficulties , and at times there was not enough money to pay the crew . It was released in 1983 to mixed reviews . David Robinson , reviewing the film in The Times said " the Monty Python style of comic anarchy requires more than scatology , rude words and funny faces . "
Chapman published his memoirs , A Liar 's Autobiography , in 1980 , choosing the title because he said " it 's almost impossible to tell the truth " . He returned to Britain permanently after Yellowbeard was released . He became involved with the extreme sports club Dangerous Sports Club , which popularised bungee jumping . Chapman was scheduled to perform a bungee jump himself , but it was cancelled due to safety concerns .
= = = Final years = = =
After reuniting with the other Pythons in The Meaning of Life , Chapman began a lengthy series of U.S. college tours , talking about the Pythons , the Dangerous Sports Club and Moon , among other subjects . Saturday Night Live creator and Python fan Lorne Michaels persuaded Chapman to star in The New Show .
In 1988 , Chapman appeared in the Iron Maiden video " Can I Play with Madness " . He starred in a pilot of a proposed television series Jake 's Journey , but financial problems prevented a full series from being made . Chapman was intended to be cast in the Red Dwarf episode " Timeslides " , but died before filming started .
= = Personal life = =
Chapman first met his long term partner , David Sherlock in Ibiza in 1966 . He later described realising he was homosexual as " an important moment in my life " . He told close friends about his relationship , including Cleese and Feldman the following year . Chapman and Sherlock moved to Belsize Park in 1968 , and the pair enjoyed visiting gay clubs in Central London .
Chapman first disclosed his homosexuality in public on British jazz musician George Melly 's television show , becoming one of the first celebrities to do so . He was a vocal spokesman for gay rights , supporting the Gay Liberation Front . In 1971 , Chapman and Sherlock adopted John Tomiczek as their son . Chapman met Tomiczek when the adolescent was a run @-@ away from Liverpool aged 14 . After discussions with Tomiczek 's father , it was agreed that Chapman would become Tomiczek 's legal guardian . Tomiczek later became Chapman 's business manager and died of a heart attack in 1992 . In 1972 , Chapman supported the newspaper Gay News , which listed him as one of the publication 's " special friends " in recognition .
Later , during his college tour , Chapman mentioned that a television audience member had written to the Pythons to complain about having a gay group member , adding that the Bible said any man who lies with a man should be taken out and stoned . With other Pythons already aware of his sexual orientation , Idle jokingly replied that they had found the perpetrator and killed him . Both Sherlock and Tomiczek remained a constant in Chapman 's life . In the mid @-@ 1980s , having resettled in Britain , the three moved to Maidstone , Kent .
Chapman took up pipe smoking aged 15 , which continued for the remainder of his life . He began drinking heavily during his time at Cambridge and St Bartholomew 's , favouring gin . By the time Monty Python went on tour in 1973 , Chapman 's drinking had begun to affect his performance , causing him to miss cues to go on stage . He stopped drinking in Christmas 1977 , concerned at being able to act in Life of Brian successfully , and remained sober for the rest of his life .
= = Death = =
In 1988 , Chapman made a routine visit to a dentist , who found a small , but malignant tumour on one of his tonsils , leading to both being removed via a tonsillectomy . The following year , the cancer had spread into Chapman 's spinal cord , where another tumour was surgically removed . Chapman had several chemotherapy treatments and surgeries during the final months of his life , but ultimately the cancer was declared inoperable . According to his brother , Chapman was visibly upset by the death of his mother that July , by which time he was terminally ill . Shortly afterwards , Chapman filmed scenes for the 20th anniversary of the first broadcast of Flying Circus , the final time he appeared on television .
Chapman died on 4 October 1989 in Maidstone Hospital . At the time of his death , he was being visited by Sherlock , brother John and his sister @-@ in @-@ law , and fellow Pythons Palin and Cleese , the latter of whom had to be led out of the room to deal with his grief . Peter Cook had intended to visit , but arrived too late and was visibly shaken by the news . Chapman 's death occurred on the eve of the twentieth anniversary of the first broadcast of Flying Circus , and Jones called it " the worst case of party @-@ pooping in all history " .
= = = Memorial service = = =
The five surviving Python members had decided to stay away from Chapman 's private funeral to prevent it from becoming a media circus and to give his family some privacy . They sent a wreath in the shape of the famous Python foot with the message : " To Graham from the other Pythons with all our love . PS : Stop us if we 're getting too silly " . The Rolling Stones also sent a floral arrangement , saying " Thanks for all the laughs " .
A private memorial service for Chapman was held at St Bartholomew 's on 3 December , two months after his death . The service began with a chorus of the hymn " Jerusalem " sung in Engrish with a mock Chinese accent . Cleese delivered a memorable eulogy to Chapman with a shock humour that he believed Chapman would have wanted , and later became the first person at a televised British memorial service to say " fuck " . Palin delivered a eulogy to Chapman , as did Idle , quipping that Chapman had decided to die rather than listen to Palin once again . Idle also led the other surviving Pythons and Chapman 's close friends and family in a rendition of the song " Always Look on the Bright Side of Life " from The Life of Brian . He closed by saying , " I 'd just like to be the last person at this meeting to say ' fuck ' . "
Ten years after Chapman 's death , his ashes were first rumoured to have been " blasted into the skies in a rocket " with assistance from the Dangerous Sports Club . In a second rumour , Chapman 's ashes had been scattered on Snowdon , North Wales .
= = Legacy = =
Since Chapman 's death , the speculation of a Python revival has been inevitably diminished . Subsequent gatherings of the Pythons have included an urn said to contain Chapman 's ashes . At the 1998 Aspen Comedy Arts festival , the urn was " accidentally " knocked over by Terry Gilliam , spilling the " ashes " on @-@ stage . The apparently cremated remains were then removed with a dust @-@ buster . Idle recalled meeting Sherlock saying " I wish he [ Chapman ] was here now " and Sherlock replied " Oh , but he is . He 's in my pocket ! " Asteroid 9617 Grahamchapman , named in Chapman 's honour , is one of six asteroids named after the Python members .
In 1997 , Sherlock allowed Jim Yoakum to start the Graham Chapman Archives . Later that year , the novel Graham Crackers : Fuzzy Memories , Silly Bits , and Outright Lies was released . It is a semi @-@ sequel to A Liar 's Autobiography , with Chapman 's works compiled by Jim Yoakum . A compendium of writings , Calcium Made Interesting : Sketches , Letters , Essays & Gondolas , also compiled and edited by Yoakum was published in 2005 in association with the David Sherlock and John Tomiczeck trust . In 2000 , Chapman 's play O Happy Day was performed by Dad 's Garage Theatre Company in Atlanta , Georgia , with assistance of Cleese and Palin . In 2006 , the album and DVD Looks Like Another Brown Trouser Job was released , featuring a college lecture recorded in April 1988 .
In June 2011 , it was announced that Cleese , Jones , Gilliam and Palin would perform in a 3 @-@ D animated version of Chapman 's memoir A Liar ’ s Autobiography : Volume VI . Co @-@ director Jeff Simpson worked closely with Chapman 's estate and the surviving Python members to " get this exactly right " . The film , titled A Liar 's Autobiography : The Untrue Story of Monty Python 's Graham Chapman , was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2012 and premiered in the UK the following month as part of the BFI London Film Festival . The voices of Cleese , Gilliam , Jones , and Palin were spliced into commentary recorded by Chapman reading from his memoir and taped shortly before his death . The film 's official trailer quotes Chapman saying , " This is the best film I 've been in since I died . "
In September 2012 , a British Comedy Society blue plaque , to commemorate Chapman , was unveiled at The Angel pub in Highgate , North London , by Jones , Palin , Barry Cryer , Ray Davies and Carol Cleveland . Palin said , " This was Graham 's manor .... Highgate was his patch and he should be celebrated because he was a very good , brilliant , funny , nice , wise , kind man , who occasionally drank too much . " In December 2014 a green plaque funded by Leicestershire County Council was placed on Chapman 's former home in Burton Road , Melton Mowbray .
= = Filmography = =
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= Snake Pass =
Snake Pass is a hill pass in the Derbyshire section of the Peak District , crossing the Pennines between Glossop and the Ladybower Reservoir at Ashopton . The road was engineered by Thomas Telford and opened in 1821 . The pass carries the A57 road between Manchester and Sheffield , but it is no longer the main signposted route between those two cities .
Like several other roads that cross the Pennines , Snake Pass has a poor accident record compared with roads in the UK generally , although more favourable compared with other roads in the area . It is regularly closed in winter because of snow , and has seen several longer @-@ term closures owing to subsidence following heavy rain . The road remains a popular route for tourists and motorcycles , however , and sections have been used for semi @-@ professional cycling races such as the Tour of Britain .
= = Route and location = =
Snake Pass runs through the National Trust 's High Peak Estate , and lies within the High Peak borough of Derbyshire ; much of it falls within the Hope Woodlands parish , the remainder being within the Charlesworth parish . It is part of the shortest route by road from Manchester to Sheffield .
The pass starts east of Glossop and climbs to the Pennines watershed between the moorland plateaux of Kinder Scout and Bleaklow to a high point of 1 @,@ 680 feet ( 510 m ) above sea level , where it crosses the Pennine Way . After this , it passes a public house that used to be known as the Snake Inn , and descends through forest to the Ladybower Reservoir at Ashopton .
The name of the road matches its winding route , but actually derives from the emblem of the Snake Inn , one of the few buildings on the high stretch of road . In turn , the pub 's name and sign were derived from the serpent on the Cavendish arms of William Cavendish , 6th Duke of Devonshire . In the early 21st century , the inn was renamed the Snake Pass Inn , such that the inn now refers to the road that referred to itself .
= = History = =
The first road between Glossop and Ashopton was the Doctor 's Gate , a Roman Road that follows the Shelf Brook between Shelf Moor and Coldharbour Moor , a route popular today with walkers and mountain bikers . In 1932 , an Iron Age axe thought to be more than 2 @,@ 000 years old was found near the site of this road .
The current road further south was designed as a toll road by Thomas Telford to improve communications east of Glossop , which was expanding as an industrial town . It was originally called the Sheffield to Glossop Turnpike and run by a turnpike trust , the Sheffield and Glossop Trust . An act of parliament to build the road was passed in 1818 , and construction was financed by the Duke of Norfolk and the Duke of Devonshire . The road opened in 1821 , having cost £ 18 @,@ 625 to build . Upon opening , it was the highest turnpike road in England . The road was immediately popular and increased toll collections of traffic heading to Glossop . Tolls were abolished on the road in June 1870 .
The eastern end of the pass is by the River Derwent . The river is bridged by the Ashopton Viaduct , built as part of the Ladybower Reservoir project between 1935 and 1945 .
Although Snake Pass is still the shortest route between Manchester and Sheffield , the more northerly Woodhead Pass , which is less steep and at a lower altitude , is now the primary road link between the two cities . Unlike Snake Pass , the Woodhead route is a trunk road . Traffic levels on both passes remained similar until the 1980s , but the Woodhead Pass route is now favoured as it connects directly to the M1 , while Snake Pass leads into the centre of Sheffield . Despite Sheffield and Manchester being among the largest UK cities by population , there is no direct motorway link between the two . A Manchester to Sheffield motorway was first proposed in 1966 , and a small section bypassing Denton and Hyde has been built , now the M67 . The Woodhead Tunnel was closed in 1981 in anticipation of a road replacement , but linking the cities would have meant constructing many costly tunnels and viaducts across the Peak District . Consequently , the plans were shelved , but reports in December 2014 announced a revival of the scheme .
The road remains popular with drivers . In 2008 , a survey by Caterham Cars rated Snake Pass the best driving road in the UK . The following year , it was listed as one of the best roads for driving in Britain by Auto Trader magazine , who described it as " offering unparalleled views over Manchester " .
= = Safety = =
As would be expected for a road crossing the Pennines , Snake Pass has several dangerous bends and blind summits . Like many roads in the North of England passing through similar terrain , Snake Pass has a poor safety record in comparison to other roads in the United Kingdom . But it is not as dangerous as other roads bisecting hilly terrain in this part of England ; it was not among the top 10 in a list of the most dangerous roads published in July 2010 , despite nine of the top ten being in Northern England .
In 2012 Derbyshire Police announced a campaign to monitor motorcyclists using the pass , who are particularly at risk of being involved in a fatal accident .
= = Weather = =
In winter the road is often the first of the routes between Sheffield and Manchester to be closed following snow in the area . In bad storms the entire road over the summit , including marker poles , has been buried in snow . In the winter months the road becomes icy , but gritting is not a priority as the A57 is only a " secondary " road at this point . Local councils prefer to treat streets in towns that are more likely to be used , as they believe that roads such as Snake Pass will be closed anyway .
In 1924 Derbyshire County Council spent £ 2 @,@ 000 installing underground telegraph wire cables beneath the road , as the above @-@ ground installations were continually broken and disrupted following snowstorms . The British winter of 2010 – 11 was the coldest for decades and the road was closed on numerous occasions .
Snake Pass has also been closed for longer periods owing to subsidence in the local area following rain . In January 1932 the road was closed after 200 tonnes of debris fell on it during a heavy rainstorm , covering the surface in as much as 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in places . In January 2008 a landslip at Cowms Moor following heavy rain caused the road to be closed to all traffic between Ladybower and Glossop , although access was still available to local premises and businesses including the Snake Pass Inn . A subsequent investigation by the British Geographical Survey showed the road has had a history of subsidence @-@ related long @-@ term closures dating back to the 1930s , including a 1970s project that attempted to strengthen the layer below the tarmac with local rock fill . The road reopened in February , but with temporary traffic lights at the point of the slip restricting traffic to one direction at a time . In 2012 the road had to be closed several times for resurfacing and strengthening .
= = Cycling = =
Snake Pass is a popular route for cyclists . A 1902 report on leisure cycling in the Lancashire Evening Post described the eastward journey from the summit to Ashopton as " nine miles unbroken freewheeling " and the scenery as " magnificent " . The road is one of only a few road climbs in the UK that are comparable in length and average gradient ( approximately 7 per cent for around 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) when starting in Glossop ) to those used in continental cycle racing . The road had been part of an 82 @-@ mile " Tour of the Peak " race , involving climbing the pass twice , and has frequently featured in the Tour of Britain along with another nearby favourite , Holme Moss .
Cycling Time Trials sanctioned hill climbs are regularly promoted on this course by local club Glossop Kinder Velo . The record for completing the course was set by Tejvan Pettinger in 2014 , at 11 minutes 51 seconds .
= = Media = =
Snake Pass has been referred to several times by music groups . The track " The Snake " by Sheffield band the Human League , from their 2001 album Secrets , is about the road . The Squarepusher album Selection Sixteen features a track entitled " Snake Pass " , described by Rolling Stone as a " monomaniacal thump " .
Comic character John Shuttleworth has performed a song called " Incident on Snake Pass " about the perils of Snake Pass , relating to an accident he claimed to have had , driving a Ford Anglia on the road .
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= Dear Jessie =
" Dear Jessie " is a song by American singer Madonna from her fourth studio album Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . It was released as the fifth single from the album on December 10 , 1989 by Sire Records . Written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard , the song was inspired by Leonard 's daughter Jessie . The release of " Dear Jessie " was limited to the United Kingdom , certain other European countries , Australia and Japan . The track is composed more like a children 's lullaby rather than a pop song , and features strings , synthesizer and strummed acoustics . A change in tempo occurs during the breakdown , where instrumentation from trumpets is included . Lyrically , the song evokes a psychedelic fantasy landscape , in which pink elephants roam with dancing moons and mermaids .
Upon its release , " Dear Jessie " received mixed reviews from critics , who complained about the overdone fantasy imagery of the song , but complimented its composition . Other reviewers likened the composition and performance to the style of The Beatles . The track was a moderate success commercially , reaching the top 10 in the United Kingdom and Ireland and the top 20 in Germany , Spain and Switzerland . The music video of " Dear Jessie " combines live action and animation , portraying a little girl waking up in bed and interacting with fantasy characters . Madonna appears in the video only as an animated , Tinker Bell @-@ type fairy .
= = Background = =
When Madonna started work on her fourth studio album , Like a Prayer , she was in an emotional state of mind following her divorce from Sean Penn , her 30th birthday and unfavorable reviews for her acting endeavors . She had certain personal matters on her mind that she thought could be the musical direction of the album . As Madonna considered her alternatives , producers Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray experimented with instrumental tracks and musical ideas for her consideration . One day , while recording of the title track was going on at Jonny Yuma Studios , producer Patrick Leonard had to pick up his daughter Jessie from school and , since his wife was out of town , had to bring her back to the studio . Madonna , who was initially angry with Leonard for his late arrival , struck up a rapport with Jessie . She commented : " It was like as if I was my mother and [ she ] was me . We were playing in our backyard again . " Witnessing their connection , Leonard approached Madonna with a song he had written for his daughter , titled " Dear Jessie " . Madonna changed some of the lyrics and agreed to record the track for Like a Prayer ; it was finished within the next three days .
" Dear Jessie " was released as the fourth single from Like a Prayer in Europe , while it served as the fifth single from the album in Australia and Japan ; it was never released in the United States . The single cover used a photo from 1987 , taken by Herb Ritts . It showed Madonna in bed , clutching a bed sheet to her bosom and sporting a pair of Minnie Mouse ears . The photo was a reference to the early criticism of Madonna 's work , when reviewers had described her voice as " Minnie Mouse on helium " .
= = Composition = =
According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , " Dear Jessie " sounds more like a children 's lullaby than a pop song . A baroque and psychedelic pop song , it begins with the sound of strings , ushering a joyous melody , with Madonna singing in a full voice . The verses are sung without any background vocals to accompany Madonna 's voice . However , in the chorus , when she sings the lines , " Pink elephants and lemonades , Dear Jessie hear the laughter raining on your love @-@ parade " , a different set of vocals are interwoven with hers , continuously chanting the words " La @-@ la " . Synthesizer and strummed acoustics are added during the second verse , followed by the repetition of the chorus , when a change in tempo and time signature occurs , followed by the sound of a child 's laughter .
As Madonna finishes singing the intermediate lines , " Close your eyes , sleepy @-@ head , It is time for your bed , Never forget what I said , Hang on ... " , a trumpet starts playing alongside the main rhythm . The breakdown has the feel of Spanish music , with the glissando evoking the string arrangements . This is followed by the bridge and the chorus being repeated twice . " Dear Jessie " ends with all instrumentation and vocals fading out , except the orchestra , which is equalized to make it sound very thin and trebly , as if coming out from a distorted radio . The lyrics encourage the little girl Jessie to use her imagination . It summons up a psychedelic landscape , where pink elephants roam with dancing moons and mermaids . It references fairy @-@ tale characters and creates an image of children playing with each other .
According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Co . Inc . , " Dear Jessie " is written in the time signature of common time , with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . Normally written in 4 ⁄ 4 , the song has a change in time signature after the second chorus , changing it to 3 ⁄ 4 . It is composed in the key of D major , with Madonna 's voice ranging from C3 to D5 . The song 's chord progression follows a sequence of Bm – A – Bm – D – A in the verses and changes to D – Bm – G – A – D in the chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
Author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández commented in his book Madonna 's Drowned Worlds that to him the song felt like a trepiditation of Madonna 's thoughts about what might be termed " girlhood " and on a broadscale , on " feminity " . Christopher P. Andersen , author of Madonna : Unauthorized , described " Dear Jessie " as " a wistfully psychedelic confection of carousels and pink elephants " , adding that " the song harkens back to the lullabies your mother must have sang to you " . Robin Anne Reid , author of Women in Science Fiction and Fantasy : Overviews , complimented the fact that " although the sort of fantasies that [ Madonna ] conjures might trend towards the kinky and sexual , she can also delve into a world of mermaids , fountains of youth , leprechauns and magic lanterns as is evident by ' Dear Jessie ' . "
Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , characterized the song as " harkening back to a childlike innocence " , but felt that Madonna overdid the elaborate fantasy imagery . O 'Brien preferred Madonna 's later attempts to sing lullaby @-@ like songs on her 1994 and 2003 albums , Bedtime Stories and American Life . Edna Gunderson from USA Today called the song a " sugary lullaby " , while opining that it would not go down as one of Madonna 's well @-@ remembered songs . The Chicago Tribune 's Ian Blair described the track as " bouncy " and praised the soothing quality of the music 's composition . Richard Harrington from The Washington Post deduced that with the song , Madonna was harkening back to her own maternal emotions , the feelings she could not receive from her own mother , due to her untimely death . Reviewing the Like a Prayer album , Mike Mentos from Los Angeles Daily News was not impressed with " Dear Jessie " and commented that " Madonna 's voice possesses neither the control , power nor emotion to carry neo @-@ baroque experiments like ' Dear Jessie ' and ' Oh Father ' . "
A number of reviewers have compared " Dear Jessie " to the work of The Beatles . Allen Metz , one of the authors of The Madonna Companion : Two Decades of Commentary , described the composition of the song as " pastel @-@ pretty , [ and ] richly orchestrated " . He felt that the song would have fit better on The Beatles ' 1969 soundtrack album , Yellow Submarine . The Beatles influence was also noted by Stephen Holden from The New York Times , who labeled " Dear Jessie " a " stylish swatch of late Beatles @-@ style psychedelia " . Joey Levy from Spin characterized " Dear Jessie " as " amazing " , describing his reaction to the song as " Wow ! This is neat ! " He added that the song sounded like Prince singing for The Beatles ' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . Kevin Phinney from the Austin American @-@ Statesman compared the song to the solo work that Beatles ' member John Lennon did later in his career . Phinney wondered how Madonna was able to come up with the song , since most of the tracks from Like a Prayer are full of innuendo and double meanings .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , " Dear Jessie " debuted at number nine on the UK Singles Chart , for the issue dated December 16 , 1989 . After two weeks , it reached a peak position of number five on the chart , staying there for another two weeks . It was present on the UK Singles Chart for a total of nine weeks , and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies of the single . According to Official Charts Company , the song has sold 255 @,@ 000 copies in the UK as of August 2008 . In Australia , the song reached number 51 on the ARIA Singles Chart , remaining there for two consecutive weeks . On the international chart for Japan , " Dear Jessie " reached the top 40 , but could not move up above number 25 . In Germany , the song reached a peak of number 19 on the chart , but it remained within the German Top 100 for a total of 19 weeks . In Ireland , the song reached a peak of number three , remaining on the chart for a total of six weeks . The song failed to reach the top 20 in Austria , and was present on the chart for two weeks . It also failed to reach the top ten in Spain and Switzerland , reaching a peak of number 17 and number 16 , respectively . " Dear Jessie " entered the Dutch Top 40 at number 37 , ultimately reaching a peak of number 25 . On the Pan @-@ Eurochart Hot 100 Singles , compiled by Music & Media , " Dear Jessie " peaked at number nine .
= = Music video = =
The music video was produced by Animation City , an animation company in London , England , and was directed by Derek Hayes . The video is mainly animated and does not feature Madonna , except as the cartoon fairy Tinker Bell . Along with Hayes , there were six animators who worked on creating the fantasy imagery . It was included on the 1990 promotional @-@ only video compilation She 's Breathless .
The video opens with a shot of a little girl sleeping in her bed . As the music starts , rays of light emanate from the bedside radio with cartoon violins playing the music . The sun rises inside a picture on the wall and the girl wakes and starts playing with her doll . A fairy goes around tapping all her toys on the floor and a large , golden teapot comes alive and shoots a rainbow from its spout . A cartoon version of the girl then slides along the rainbow and , interpreting the lyrics of the song , catches a falling star and rides over the moon .
By the second verse , pink elephants float over the girl 's bed and an animated fairy version of Madonna emerges from the picture and winks . She takes the little girl through another picture , displaying mythological and fairytale beings such as dragons , princes and unicorns as well as a castle where Madonna dances with the moon . An underwater scene with mermaids and fish follows , then a parade of all the girl 's toys around her room . As the song wraps , the fairy taps on the girl and causes her to yawn . She falls asleep again and her toys go back to being as they were . The violins and the instruments gradually fade inside the radio and the song ends .
= = Track listing and formats = =
UK 7 " single / 7 " picture disc
" Dear Jessie " – 4 : 20
" Till Death Do Us Part " – 5 : 09
UK 12 " single / CD single
" Dear Jessie " – 4 : 20
" Till Death Do Us Part " – 5 : 09
" Holiday " ( 12 " version ) – 6 : 20
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – songwriter , producer
Patrick Leonard – songwriter , producer , arranger , mixing
Bill Meyers – arranger , mixing
Chuck Findley – arranger , trumpet
Nadirah Ali – background vocals
Rose Banks – background vocals
Guy Pratt – drum programming , synthesizer
Paulinho da Costa – percussion
Herb Ritts – cover art photographer
Credits and personnel adapted from Like a Prayer album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Women 's individual road race =
The women 's road race was one of the cycling events at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . It took place on 10 August 2008 , featuring 66 women from 33 countries . It was the seventh appearance of an Olympic women 's road race event and featured a longer course than any of the previous six races . The race was run on the Urban Road Cycling Course ( one of Beijing 's nine temporary venues ) , which is 102 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 63 @.@ 8 mi ) in its entirety . Including a second lap around the 23 @.@ 8 km ( 14 @.@ 8 mi ) final circuit , the total distance of the women 's race was 126 @.@ 4 km ( 78 @.@ 5 mi ) , less than half the length of the men 's race .
Heavy rain during most of the race made conditions difficult for the competitors . A group of five broke away during the final lap and worked together until the final sprint , where Nicole Cooke won the race . Cooke earned Great Britain 's first medal at these Games and 200th Olympic gold medal overall . Emma Johansson of Sweden and Tatiana Guderzo of Italy , finishing second and third place with the same time as Cooke , received silver and bronze medals respectively .
The race marked the first positive drug test of the 2008 Olympic Games , by María Isabel Moreno of Spain . She was scheduled to compete in this event and the time trial to follow , but left Beijing on 31 July , before the race . The International Olympic Committee said on 11 August that she had tested positive for EPO . This left 66 cyclists to compete , one fewer than in 2004 .
= = Qualification = =
The 2008 Summer Olympics marked the seventh appearance of an Olympic women 's road race event . Qualification for the race was restricted to three athletes per National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) for the 16 top @-@ ranked countries in overall Union Cycliste Internationale ( UCI ) standings at 1 June 2008 , and a maximum of two athletes each for the countries ranking 17 – 24 . An NOC with an athlete in the top 100 at 31 May 2008 received a place , which was taken from the countries ranked 17 – 24 in reversed order , provided that these athletes qualified through the UCI World Tour rankings . Additionally , three places were available at the B World Championship for NOCs that did not qualify through the UCI standing ; Gu Sun @-@ Geun , Hae Ok @-@ Jeong and Thatsani Wichana secured Olympic qualification for their NOCs in this way , but only the first was chosen by her national committee to compete . The maximum quota of the event was set at 67 cyclists , and as of 5 June , 66 cyclists were qualified in this way . Although the Chinese and Austrian NOCs were allowed to enter three cyclists , they only entered two . This left three open positions : two were allotted to South Africa and New Zealand , based on their World Tour rankings , and the third was given to Mauritius by direct invitation . Only 66 of the 67 entrants began the race , as María Isabel Moreno of Spain left the country days earlier after failing a drug test .
= = Preview = =
Judith Arndt , the German rider who finished second at the 2004 Summer Olympics , was a strong favourite . Arndt had recently finished first at the 2008 Coupe du Monde Cycliste Féminine de Montréal , and her form in the months that preceded the race was excellent . Among other contenders were UCI Women 's Road standings leader , Marianne Vos of the Netherlands ; Briton Nicole Cooke , who said she had greater confidence in her team on this occasion than in 2004 , when she finished fifth ; and Noemi Cantele of Italy . The Australian team was considered strong : it included Sara Carrigan ( the defending champion ) , Oenone Wood ( winner of the 2008 Australian Road Race ) , and Katherine Bates , all of whom could work on each other 's behalf . Because the final leg of the course involved steep ramps , riders considered to be climbing experts ( including Cooke , Vos , and Susanne Ljungskog ) were favoured . Although not seen as a strong medal contender , one former champion participating in the race was 49 @-@ year @-@ old Jeannie Longo from France , who won the road race in 1996 and had competed in the inaugural event in 1984 , making this her seventh appearance .
Many cyclists expected tropical conditions during the race and adjusted their training to compensate . For example , Marianne Vos prepared in El Salvador . Cyclists had also anticipated a problem with high levels of pollution in Beijing , but these did not appear to affect the results of the men 's road race . Although the pollution levels in Beijing on 10 August far exceeded the World Health Organisation 's safety level , the rain during the women 's race decreased the smog level .
In the men 's race , conducted the previous day , humidity and heat had taken the greatest toll on the athletes . To compensate for the expected warm weather , some female cyclists chose not to wear undershirts . This proved to be a misjudgment , as conditions were cooler in the Great Wall section than on the previous day — 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) compared to 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . Thunderstorms , bringing persistently heavy rain and strong winds , resulted in actual race conditions far different from expected . Other riders , such as Katherine Bates ( who did not finish ) , prepared by wearing cooling vests before the race and stocked up on ice packs during it .
= = Course = =
The race was run on the Urban Road Cycling Course ( one of Beijing 's nine temporary venues ) , which was 102 @.@ 6 km ( 63 @.@ 8 mi ) in its entirety . Unlike the previous Olympic races , the start and finish were not at the same location . The early section of the race took place within central Beijing ; the gradient of this part of the race was relatively flat . After approximately 78 @.@ 8 km ( 49 @.@ 0 mi ) , the riders reached the Badaling section of the Great Wall and began two loops of 23 @.@ 8 km ( 14 @.@ 8 mi ) between the Badaling and Juyong Passes . The gradient increased at this point , as the Badaling Pass gained 338 @.@ 2 m ( 1 @,@ 110 ft ) in elevation 12 @.@ 4 km ( 7 @.@ 7 mi ) from the start of the circuit to the highest point , including ramps as steep as a 10 percent gradient . From there the cyclists rode over a false flat before descending a highway towards the Juyong Pass . The final 350 @.@ 0 m ( 1 @,@ 148 @.@ 3 ft ) were a moderately steep climb , designed to ensure an exciting finale should several riders be grouped together at the end of the race . In total , the distance of the women 's race was 126 @.@ 4 km ( 78 @.@ 5 mi ) , less than half the length of the men 's race .
The race 's starting line was at the Yongdingmen Gate , a remnant of Beijing 's old city wall , which is a part of the Chongwen District of northern Beijing . The route passed through eight districts : Chongwen , Xuanwu , Dongcheng , Xicheng , Chaoyang , Haidian , Changping , and Yanqing . Landmarks such as the Temple of Heaven , the Great Hall of the People , Tiananmen Square , the Yonghe Temple , and sections of the Great Wall of China were passed as the course journeyed from urban Beijing into the countryside . It passed the architectural features of the 2008 Olympics , including the Beijing National Stadium and Beijing National Aquatics Center ( known colloquially as the Bird 's Nest and the Water Cube ) . The course ended at the Juyong Pass in the Changping District . The course 's scenery was described by The Guardian as " visually sumptuous " .
Due to security regulations put in place by the Olympic organisers , spectators were not permitted to stand roadside along the course . Several prominent figures in cycling protested against this decision , including UCI president Pat McQuaid and two Australian riders , Stuart O 'Grady and Cadel Evans , who competed in the men 's race . McQuaid and O 'Grady felt that the absence of people along the course deprived the race of the atmosphere present at other cycling events , and said that it failed to take supporters ' wishes into consideration . Cycling Australia 's reaction to the cyclists ' complaints was to request that security restrictions be eased for the time trial to follow , but this plea was ignored .
= = Race = =
The race started at 14 : 00 China Standard Time ( UTC + 8 ) , and was scheduled to last until 17 : 30 . The weather was unseasonably cool . It was cloudy and the roads were dry at the start of the race . The clouds brought steady rainfall midway through the race , making conditions challenging .
The race saw some incidents which caused riders to lose valuable time . Gu Sun @-@ Geun ( South Korea ) lost control of her bike , bringing others down with her . She eventually fell into a concrete ditch on the side of the highway . Natalia Boyarskaya ( Russia ) , who had built a lead of 59 seconds over the top of Badaling , had to stop to see which way to choose at a poorly marked intersection .
The chase for Boyarskaya was led by Christine Thorburn ( United States ) , who brought the lead down to 34 seconds prior to the final loop of 23 @.@ 8 km ( 14 @.@ 8 mi ) . Emma Pooley ( Great Britain ) and Tatiana Guderzo ( Italy ) rode away from the bunch on the climb and caught Boyarskaya with 22 km ( 14 mi ) to go , forming a three rider breakaway . The German team , with a steady pace , caught them soon after . Guderzo attacked with about 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) to go over the final summit . She was soon joined by Christiane Soeder ( Austria ) , Emma Johansson ( Sweden ) , Nicole Cooke ( Great Britain ) and Linda Villumsen ( Denmark ) . With 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining , the group had gained 16 seconds on the main peloton . Marianne Vos ( Netherlands ) , one of the pre @-@ race favourites who was not in the leading group , hesitated before leading the chase together with other pre @-@ race favourite Judith Arndt . Cooke looked out of contention as the five came round the final bend , but she came around the other riders with 200 metres ( 660 ft ) to go , claiming the gold medal with a clear margin . Johansson came in second and Guderzo won the bronze . Vos eventually led the bunch over the finish line , 21 seconds after the winner .
It was later revealed that Cooke had held back intentionally , as she was using lightweight tyres not suited to rainy conditions . The British women 's road team manager Julian Winn said " We were afraid someone might come down in front of her , so we told her to keep to the left . We knew she would chew them up after that . " Cooke 's victory was the result of meticulous planning , as the team had ridden the course before the race and formulated the winning plan .
= = Doping incident = =
The day after the race , an International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) spokesperson announced that Spanish rider María Isabel Moreno had become the first athlete of the 2008 Olympics to test positive for a banned substance . Moreno had provided a urine sample the day she arrived in Beijing ( 31 July ) , but flew back to Madrid on the same day , after suffering a panic attack , and did not return to take part in the race . The urine sample tested positive for erythropoietin ( EPO ) . The IOC stripped Moreno of her Games accreditation , later referring the matter to the UCI which confirmed the positive result . A statement on Moreno 's website read that " she does not feel ready to justify or explain her reasons for leaving the [ Olympic ] village " .
= = Final classification = =
A total of 66 cyclists have been qualified in the event at these Games . Most of them are not expected to finish one @-@ day races , having worked in support for their teams ( in this case , nations ) to place riders with better climbing skills in good positions once the mountainous part of a course begins . Additionally , any rider lapped by the race leader on the Badaling circuit would be forced to stop , although this situation did not occur . The notation " s.t. " indicates that the rider crossed the finish line in the same group as the cyclist before her , and was therefore credited with the same finishing time .
Notes
Source : Official results
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= French destroyer Volta =
Volta was a Mogador @-@ class destroyer ( French : contre @-@ torpilleur ) of the French Navy . Named for the West African river , she was built before the outbreak of World War II and was the penultimate contre @-@ torpilleur built by the French Navy . Along with her sister ship Mogador , Volta was designed in an effort to build a ship capable of out @-@ fighting every other ship below her tonnage . Arguably the design was less than successful , as it possessed the armament of a light cruiser on the hull of a destroyer . The two ships of the class have been described as having pushed the contre @-@ torpilleur concept beyond " the limits of its capabilities " .
During Volta 's service with the French Navy , she saw only limited action . Following the outbreak of the war , she took part in convoy escort duties initially before being withdrawn to Brest for refit . On 3 July 1940 , when the British attacked the French fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir , Volta managed to escape without damage and sought refuge in Toulon . When the Germans tried to seize her along with the rest of the fleet on 27 November 1942 , however , she was scuttled in Toulon Harbour by her crew to prevent her from being captured .
= = Design and description = =
Volta had an overall length of 137 @.@ 5 meters ( 451 ft 1 in ) , a beam of 12 @.@ 57 meters ( 41 ft 3 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 74 meters ( 15 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 997 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 950 long tons ) at standard load and 4 @,@ 018 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 955 long tons ) at deep load . The Rateau @-@ Bretagne geared steam turbines were designed to produce 92 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 68 @,@ 604 kW ) , which would propel the ship at 39 knots ( 72 km / h ; 45 mph ) . However , during sea trials in February 1938 , Volta 's turbines provided 108 @,@ 424 shp ( 80 @,@ 852 kW ) and she reached 41 @.@ 67 knots ( 77 @.@ 17 km / h ; 47 @.@ 95 mph ) at a deep displacement of 3 @,@ 731 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 672 long tons ) . The ship carried 360 metric tons ( 354 long tons ) of fuel oil at normal load and an additional 350 metric tons ( 340 long tons ) at deep load .
Volta carried eight Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1929 guns in four twin electrically powered gun turrets , two each superimposed fore and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Mle 1933 guns in a single mount positioned on the rear deck house forward of the rear turrets . She also mounted four 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Mle 1929 heavy machine guns in two twin mounts located between the forward superstructure and the forward guns . Volta carried 10 above @-@ water 550 @-@ millimeter ( 22 in ) tubes : a pair of triple mounts between the funnels and a pair of double mounts aft of the rear funnel . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into Volta 's stern ; these housed a total of 16 Guirard depth charges . Mine rails were fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 40 mines .
The ship 's greatest weakness was her " inability to generate sufficient electric current to power the multitude of auxiliary motors on which their advanced machinery and complex gun mountings were dependent . Many of the auxiliary motors themselves were also seriously underpowered , particularly the servomotors for the gun mountings ( which were slow to train and elevate ) and for the rudder ( which contributed to the ship 's poor maneuverability . "
= = Service history = =
Volta , with her sister Mogador , comprised the 6th Large Destroyer Division ( French : 6e Division de contre @-@ torpilleurs ) and was assigned to the Force de Raide based at Brest when the war began . This group 's purpose was to hunt German blockade runners and raiders and to escort convoys that might be in danger from the same . From 21 – 30 October 1939 the Force de Raide escorted the KJ.4 convoy to protect it against the German cruiser Deutschland which had sortied into the North Atlantic before the war began . A sortie by the Gneisenau and Scharnhorst into the North Atlantic on 21 November prompted the Force de Raide to sail from Brest to rendezvous with the British battlecruiser HMS Hood and patrol the area south of Iceland , but the German ships were able to return safely under the cover of heavy weather without being engaged .
Volta was refitted at Brest between January and May 1940 and a number of minor changes were made . The necessary improvements identified for the main armament during her sea trials a year earlier were finally implemented , the canvas cover for the back of the turrets was replaced by a rolling door , new radios were installed , and shields were fitted to the anti @-@ aircraft machine guns and the searchlights . A SS @-@ 6 sonar was fitted in June 1940 , but proved to be ineffectual .
On 3 July 1940 , following the Fall of France , Volta was at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir when the British attacked the French fleet in an effort to destroy the French fleet in order to prevent it from being captured by the Germans . Despite the attack , Volta fired 88 shells at a British destroyer — a performance rated by her gunnery officer as her best up to that point — before managing to escape to Toulon in the company of the battleship Strasbourg and a number of other destroyers .
After the Armistice with Germany in June 1940 , the French Navy decided to increase the anti @-@ aircraft strength of the Mogador @-@ class destroyers and installed two 13 @.@ 2 mm Browning machine guns on platforms attached to the sides of the No. 3 gun mount in December 1940 – January 1941 . This was a version of the American .50 caliber M2 Browning re @-@ chambered to use the standard French 13 @.@ 2 mm ammunition and with its rate of fire increased to 1000 rounds per minute . It was fed from 1000 @-@ round flexible belts , but had no greater range than the older Hotchkiss machine guns already fitted on Volta . Plans were made at the same time to replace the Hotchkiss machine guns with another twin 37 mm Mle 1933 mount and another pair of Brownings , but a shortage of weapons prevented this plan from being fulfilled . However eight 7 @.@ 5 mm Darne machine guns were fitted , more for the crew 's morale benefit than any real usefulness , and more OPL 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) rangefinders were fitted at the aft end of the centre deck house to improve coverage of the rear sky arcs and to increase the number of aerial targets that could be engaged .
In the autumn of 1941 the mitrailleuse de 25 mm contre @-@ aéroplanes Modèle 1940 , a naval adaptation of an Army anti @-@ aircraft gun , became available . So Volta was modified between August and November 1941 with two single 25 mm guns where the Hotchkiss machine guns had been mounted . Their platform was widened and one additional Browning machine gun was added on each side of the platform . The Hotchkiss guns were moved to the upper deck on either side of the after deck house . A degaussing cable was added during this same refit . Later in the year the SS 6 sonar was scheduled to be replaced by a French copy of the British ASDIC , but it was still sitting on the dockside when Volta was scuttled in Toulon Harbour when the Germans tried to seize the fleet on 27 November 1942 to prevent it from defecting to the Allies . She was raised on 20 May 1943 by the Italians , but no effort was made to repair her . Volta was bombed and sunk on 24 November 1943 and later refloated and scrapped in 1948 .
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= A500 road =
D road can also apply as a road designation under the Great Britain road numbering scheme
The A500 is a major primary A road in Staffordshire and Cheshire , England . It is dual carriageway for most of its length and connects Nantwich , junctions 16 and 15 of the M6 motorway with the city of Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . It is known locally as the D @-@ Road ( D is also the Roman numeral representing the number 500 ) . In 2004 the road was stated as carrying 60 @,@ 000 vehicles a day through Stoke .
It was built to provide links between Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent and the M6 , before being extended to Nantwich . Construction has taken place over several stages , beginning in 1962 , with the final section of the original route being completed similar to the original plans in 2006 . As a trunk road it is maintained by the Highways Agency .
= = History = =
By the 1960s , traffic congestion was a major problem in Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , and journeys across the area sometimes took hours . There was no connection from the newly constructed M6 to the city . Businesses in the area wanted an easier route to get their goods out of the area .
The A500 was initially built from the M6 at junction 16 to the A34 road at Talke as part of the motorway construction , opening in 1962 . At the southern end , a dual carriageway was constructed from junction 15 of the M6 to the A34 near Trentham , given the number A5006 , and opened at the same time . The northern section of the road was then subsequently extended from Talke to the A53 road . The final section from the A34 in the south to the A53 junction was built between 1974 and 1977 . The two middle junctions were to be grade separated , but due to financial constraints they were built as roundabouts . Construction involved the destruction of streets and businesses within Stoke 's town centre , as well as the excavation of a mass grave of the victims of a 17th @-@ century cholera epidemic . This final section was named Queensway , and on its completion the whole route became the A500 .
The route remained unchanged until the 1980s when the Hanford Roundabout junction had a flyover built , as this was a major bottleneck for both the A500 and A34 . The 1977 section east of this junction had been built with provision for the bridge , but the section built as the A5006 required realignment for the new interchange . In the late 1980s the road was extended from Junction 16 close to Weston with connections provided to existing roads to Keele and Crewe . The A52 , which at that time ran to Nantwich , was renumbered from Newcastle to Weston as a B road and the section from Weston to Nantwich was incorporated into the A500 . In 1989 a bypass to the east of Nantwich was opened , extending the A500 from the south of Nantwich to its current northerly terminus with the A51 .
In 1993 a proposal was made to add the missing flyover and underpass close to Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent railway station , after an alternative plan had been rejected because of its cost . A full review of the national roads programme resulted in the suspension of that scheme however . In 1997 the A50 was rerouted through Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent to meet the A500 at Sideway , where a new grade separated roundabout was constructed .
On the approach to Hough was a narrow single lane bridge which was added to with a Bailey bridge in 1993 . In September 2003 , the Shavington bypass opened to reroute the road away from three villages on the former A52 section . This was built to dual carriageway standards with provision for further junctions to new development sites .
Traffic continued to rise to the point where major congestion was experienced on the central section . Work began on 16 February 2004 on the A500 Pathfinder Project to replace the final two roundabouts in Stoke with underpasses . The Highways Agency defined the pathfinder project as involving " a new form of contract and co @-@ operative working methods to deliver a better value project , faster . " The project involved alterations to the path of the Trent and Mersey Canal and River Trent , along with new provisions for pedestrians . The work was carried out by Edmund Nuttall Limited and was planned to be completed in spring 2006 . Following a number of delays for which it was rumoured the construction company was being fined up to £ 100 @,@ 000 a day for not keeping to schedule , the road opened on Tuesday 26 September 2006 , with the southbound traffic in the morning and northbound traffic in the afternoon . Several months of additional work was needed to finalise traffic light operations , gardens , and other miscellaneous tasks .
In February 2009 , it was announced that the single carriageway Nantwich bypass would be re @-@ numbered as the A51 in a bid to relieve the town centre of traffic .
In 2015 , the final 500m of the eastbound single carriageway between Weston and Junction 16 of the M6 was upgraded . This included resignalling works on the roundabout in order to relieve congestion at the roundabout .
= = Route = =
The road is the primary access route for traffic to and from almost all areas of Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . Starting to the east of Nantwich on the Nantwich bypass the dual carriageway Shavington bypass running north of Hough and Shavington . Returning to the 1980s single carriageway extension route it continues east through a cutting to the M6 at Junction 16 where it becomes a dual carriageway . Continuing through open countryside it passes under the A34 at Talke Pits , turns south before meeting the Tunstall Western Bypass and enters the north of Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . Now continuing in an urban setting it runs between Newcastle and Burslem , passing through the middle of the former Wolstanton Colliery before running east of Stoke 's town centre . Passing through the newest section in a cutting it emerges south of Stoke alongside the site of the Victoria Ground . Turning west it passes the Britannia Stadium before leaving the urban area at Hanford , south of Trent Vale . It then runs through a cutting before meeting the M6 at junction 15 .
= = = Junctions = = =
* The route runs in a semi @-@ circular direction in Stoke @-@ On @-@ Trent . The table has its northern terminus at the top
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= Leif Tronstad =
Leif Hans Larsen Tronstad DSO , OBE ( 27 March 1903 – 11 March 1945 ) was a Norwegian scientist , intelligence officer and military organizer . He graduated from the Norwegian Institute of Technology in 1927 and was a prolific researcher and writer of academic publications . A professor of chemistry at the Norwegian Institute of Technology from 1936 , he was also among the pioneers of heavy water research , and was instrumental when a heavy water plant was built at Vemork .
During World War II Norway was invaded by Germany and Tronstad conducted domestic resistance for one year before fleeing the country for England . Here , he gathered valuable intelligence from Norwegian sources , both on the development of the V @-@ 2 rocket and the growing German interest in heavy water . In 1943 Tronstad planned Operation Gunnerside , in which the German access to heavy water processing at Vemork was severely impeded . His information about the V @-@ 2 rocket contributed to the massive Allied bombing of Peenemünde .
For a long time Tronstad had wanted to return to Norway to organize resistance work , however he was prevented by the Norwegian military authorities in Britain . In 1944 , however , he did travel to Norway , to organize Operation Sunshine , for the defence of Norwegian infrastructure . After five months in the country , he was killed in action after his team had taken the local bailiff hostage .
= = Early life = =
Tronstad was born in Bærum ; the son of Hans Larsen and Josefine Amalie Tronstad , Hans died three months before Leif was born . Leif thus grew up in Sandvika with his mother and four siblings . He graduated from middle school in 1918 , with top grades in mathematics . He then embarked on thirty months of professional practice in two local electricity companies , which was a requirement to enrol at Kristiania Technical School , a predecessor of the Faculty of Engineering at Oslo University College . When he enrolled in 1920 he chose technical chemistry instead of electronic engineering . He graduated in 1922 , the best chemistry student ; a fellow student recalled that he " did not have to read anything more than once " in order to remember it . In the spring of 1923 , he also took the examen artium after attending the Haagaas School for one year . He was ready to enroll at the Norwegian Institute of Technology , but waited one year , possibly wanting to strengthen his personal finances . In the meantime , he started on his compulsory military service .
He was an accomplished athlete and helped his hometown club Grane SK to two Norwegian 4 × 1500 metres relay records . The records were set in 1921 and 1923 , but broken by the team IL i BUL in 1926 . His brother John , a bronze medalist in 1500 metres at the 1917 Norwegian championships , was on the relay team as well . Both brothers used their father 's name Larsen at the time ; Leif took up his mother 's name Tronstad later .
In 1924 Tronstad moved to Trondheim to study at the Norwegian Institute of Technology , graduating in 1927 . His graduation paper was deemed exceptional and as such was reported to King Haakon of Norway . Regarded as a fully @-@ fledged academic work , it was published scientifically in 1928 . Tronstad had taken various stray jobs while studying , and also finished his military service , reaching the rank of Second Lieutenant in the Norwegian Army Corps of Weaponry in 1927 . From 1927 to 1928 Tronstad worked briefly as an assistant at the Norwegian Institute of Technology as well as in a private company in Kristiansand . In 1928 he returned to the Norwegian Institute of Technology as a research fellow . In the same year , Tronstad married Edla Obel , who was nine years his junior , in Trondheim . The couple had two children .
= = Academic career = =
Tronstad spent the first year of a research period as an assistant to Herbert Freundlich in Dahlem , Berlin . He studied the passivity of metal surfaces , and made a breakthrough when he managed to measure extremely thin oxide surface coatings , thus solving a problem dating from the time of Michael Faraday . He continued to Stockholm to study metallography under Carl Benedicks , and to elaborate further on his results from Berlin . The work was completed in 1931 and his thesis , spanning 250 pages , was published in German as Optische Untersuchungen zur Frage der Passivität des Eisens und Stahls . For it , he received the doctorate degree . He was hired at the Norwegian Institute of Technology as a lecturer in the summer of 1931 , although he spent the first year at the University of Cambridge , conducting further research with a scholarship from a memorial fund of Christian Michelsen . The research at Cambridge was a continuation of his thesis work , but this time he tested his method on mercury .
Following the death in 1934 of a professor of technical inorganic chemistry at the Norwegian Institute of Technology , Tronstad was appointed his successor on 17 April 1936 , effective from 1 May . At the time , he was one of the youngest professors in Norway . He was a member of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters , and in early 1940 he became vice president of the Norwegian Chemical Society . During his short scientific career , Tronstad penned about eighty scientific publications , including fourteen on heavy water @-@ related topics .
The properties of heavy water had been discovered in 1932 by Harold Urey . In 1933 , Leif Tronstad and Jomar Brun , the head of Norsk Hydro Rjukan , created a plan for industrial production of heavy water in Norway . As Norsk Hydro were already producing ammonia for nitrogen fertilizer , Tronstad and Brun had realized that large amounts of electrolyzed water were available . Tronstad was paid by Norsk Hydro as a consultant . Already in 1934 , Norsk Hydro had opened a plant near the power station at Vemork . This was the world 's first plant for industrial mass production of heavy water . Both French and German scientists expressed interest in the project .
= = World War II = =
= = = German invasion of Norway = = =
Tronstad , holding a military rank , had a standing order to report to the Norwegian military headquarters in Oslo in the face of a military peril . When Germany invaded Norway on 9 April 1940 , he first informed his students of the situation , and then drove towards Oslo . He brought his wife and children with him , but having no intention of taking them to a possible theatre of war , he left them in the Drivdalen valley . He continued alone but shortly after , upon learning that Oslo was the first city to fall to the invaders , he stopped at Dovre . The family had a cabin in the vicinity . Here , he helped organize volunteers from local rifle associations to form a line of defence meant to repel any advancing German forces . German Fallschirmjäger paratroops did land at nearby Dombås , but were surprised by a contingent of regular Norwegian forces already in the area , who ensured a tactical victory for Norway in the ensuing Battle of Dombås .
= = = Resistance = = =
When the Norwegian Campaign ended and the German occupation of Norway was a reality , Tronstad became involved in resistance work , largely based around the Norwegian Institute of Technology . He was associated with the radio agent group Skylark B , which had regular contact with London from January 1941 . Among other things , he sent reports on the interest shown by German authorities in the heavy water plant at Vemork . One source of this information was Tronstad 's old companion , Jomar Brun , still in charge of the plant , who also helped people to flee the country by sea , via the Møre coast . After exposure of the group in September 1941 , Tronstad himself had to flee the country . Another resistance member , who had already been jailed , managed to warn Tronstad , who travelled from Trondheim to Oslo by train . The following day , the Gestapo visited his house to arrest him . After a few days in hiding , Tronstad was driven by car to Østfold , and then travelled on foot to Töcksfors via Ørje . From there he continued by plane to England , rejecting an offer of a civilian job in Sweden .
He reached England in October 1941 . He already had a broad network of contacts there , stemming both from his academic career as well as from his radio operations . He also maintained several contacts abroad , including scientists whom he knew from the Norwegian Institute of Technology : Harald Wergeland and Njål Hole . The opportunity to work directly for the British was presented to Tronstad , but instead he chose to aim his efforts towards disrupting the German occupation of Norway and improving the Norwegian resistance work . He even wanted to enrol in active duty , but was stopped by the Norwegian military command , who considered him " too valuable " for the war theatre . Tronstad 's foremost skill was that of organization , which he owed to his experience in science . Thus , Tronstad became a part of the staff of the Ministry of Defence , and later of the Norwegian High Command . From 1943 , he headed a section in department 4 ( FO IV ) . This had been established in December 1942 under the leadership of Colonel Bjarne Øen , and Tronstad was brought in as a reinforcement as the work burden increased . Also , he had recently been promoted from Captain to Major . Tronstad 's section was responsible for the special operation towards industry and shipping ; training of the Norwegian Independent Company 1 ( Kompani Linge ) ; technical advice on sabotage , and towards the end of the war also the protection of Norwegian industry . He established the Norwegian High Command Technical Committee , which included other Norwegian scientists @-@ in @-@ exile such as Svein Rosseland , Helmer Dahl and Gunnar Randers . The Technical Committee is considered as the precursor to the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment , established in 1946 .
= = = Heavy water sabotage = = =
Already in 1941 , Tronstad was aware that heavy water production at Vemork had greatly increased . In the beginning , Tronstad had not been aware of the connection between heavy water and atomic weaponry , but it eventually became clear that Germany could be running a nuclear energy project , especially after Harold Urey visited the United Kingdom in November 1941 . Tronstad later learned from Jomar Brun that further expansion of heavy water production was being discussed . Brun had been a part of a small conference on the issue , hosted by Kurt Diebner in Berlin , in January 1942 . Brun would later communicate with England through Einar Skinnarland , a covert Special Operations Executive agent hailing from Rjukan . In October 1942 , Brun was summoned to England , reportedly at the request of Winston Churchill . Instead , a team of agents were parachuted into the area to gather more intelligence , under the codename Operation Grouse .
The idea of subjecting the heavy water facility at Vemork to heavy air bombing surfaced , but Tronstad was a staunch opponent of such an idea , which he saw as too hazardous . He warned of the presence of civil housing , and argued that bombing was not even guaranteed to succeed , given that the heavy water facility was located in the armoured basement of the electrolyzing plant . The first attempt to take out the facility , in November 1942 , had consisted of British personnel using gliders to land near Vemork . The operation , codenamed Freshman , was a catastrophe , as all units except for one towing aircraft perished , either due to crash landings or in German captivity .
Tronstad then organized the next attempt . He had wanted to take an active part in the sabotage mission , but again he was stopped by his commanders , who regarded him as inexpendable . Tronstad and Brun supplied the would @-@ be saboteurs with extensive knowledge of the facility , and organized the training . The operation , codenamed Gunnerside and led by Joachim Rønneberg , was carried out successfully between 27 and 28 February 1943 . However , after three months , Germany managed to resume production . Against the will of Tronstad , in July 1943 , an American @-@ led raid by 161 aircraft bombed Vemork as well as the shipment yard at Herøya . The two bombings claimed the lives of 76 people , many of whom were civilian . The heavy water plant was not directly affected by the bombing , nevertheless production was halted due to a damaged generator . The Germans then tried to disassemble the production facility , followed by a retreat from Vemork with the remaining stock of heavy water . This resulted in the sinking of SF Hydro by Norwegian saboteurs , halting the heavy water transport , but again claiming many civilian lives . Tronstad had given his consent to the latter operation , reportedly with a " heavy heart " .
Concealed listening posts at Rjukan and Notodden also revealed high @-@ level German discussions of long @-@ range weaponry . The place name Peenemünde was frequently mentioned . As this intelligence reaching Tronstad 's ear via his contacts in Norway , he forwarded it to the British . As a result , the Royal Air Force bombed the Army Research Center of Peenemünde in August 1943 . Further raids were made by the US Army Air Force in July and August 1944 . The bombing halted the weapons program there , which centered around development of the V @-@ 1 flying bomb and the V @-@ 2 rocket . Fellow scientists Rideal and Evans later wrote that Tronstad " contributed directly to the speedy victory of the Allied Nations , besides saving the region which came to be known as ' Southern England ' from an even longer and more severe ordeal than it actually endured " .
= = = Operation Sunshine = = =
In 1944 , when the tide of war was turning against Germany , the German forces started to retreat from Northern Norway . However , they used the scorched earth tactic as they retreated . Consequently , Tronstad started to plan how to organize a defence of industrial sites in Southern Norway . The first plan pertained to Øvre Telemark , and was codenamed Operation Sunshine . Its basic principle was to build a defence force from the existing Milorg pockets in the district . Tronstad , who earlier had been stopped from travelling to Norway himself , did so this time . He felt that it was time to deal a decisive blow to a dwindling German war power , and called for the " full effort ... from all who would be called men " .
Tronstad was parachuted into Hardangervidda on 4 October 1944 , together with eight Norwegian Independent Company 1 members . The group included Gunnar Syverstad , Jens @-@ Anton Poulsson and Claus Helberg . They lived in a small cabin built by Einar Skinnarland .
However , after a few months a situation arose that could compromise the operation . It was feared that Torgeir Lognvik , the bailiff installed by the Nazis in Rauland municipality , had become suspicious . Thus , the people behind Operation Sunshine created a plan to lure him to the mountains , and capture and interrogate him there . On 11 March 1945 , resistance member Jon Landsverk managed to travel with Torgeir Lognvik towards the mountains on the pretext of showing him some stolen goods . The two were soon met by Gunnar Syverstad and Einar Skinnarland , who captured the bailiff . He was taken to a lodge in the hills of Syrebekkstølen , where he was to be interrogated by Landsverk , Syverstad and Tronstad . However , on the same day , Torgeir 's brother Johans became suspicious and decided to follow the ski trails , which led him to Syrebekkstølen . Armed , he entered the lodge , firing several shots , taking the Resistance fighters by surprise . Gunnar Syverstad was killed in the initial attack . Torgeir , who was not bound , grabbed a rifle . In the struggle , Tronstad charged at Johans , but was killed . The two brothers then escaped . Jon Landsverk survived , and together with Einar Skinnarland he disposed of the two bodies in a lake . However , the next day the bodies were found and burned by German forces . After the war , Jon Landsverk testified against the Lognvik brothers as a part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . While Landsverk claimed that the wounded Tronstad had been killed by a blow from the butt of a rifle held by Torgeir , the court found Johans guilty of both murders , and Torgeir of attempted murder . Johans was sentenced to a ten @-@ year prison term , and Torgeir to a five @-@ year term .
= = = Diaries = = =
Tronstad 's coded diaries from 1941 to 1945 are preserved , and the 13 original books are kept by the National Archival Services of Norway . They have been transcribed and made available to historians , and are regarded as an important source of information from the " outer front " .
= = Awards and legacy = =
Tronstad had a military funeral on 30 May 1945 , being buried at Vestre gravlund in Oslo . He was awarded Norway 's highest decoration for military gallantry , the War Cross with sword , as well as the Norwegian War Medal and the Defence Medal 1940 – 1945 . In addition to his Norwegian decorations , Tronstad received the Order of the British Empire , Chevalier of the French Légion d 'honneur and Croix de guerre and the US Medal of Freedom with bronze palm as well as the British Distinguished Service Order .
A memorial stone was raised at Syrebekkstølen , commemorating the death of Tronstad and Gunnar Syverstad . Also , several streets in Norway have been named after him . A statue of Tronstad today stands at the square Leif Tronstads plass in Sandvika , the administrative centre of Bærum . It was commissioned in 1965 by the local Rotary club , and erected in 1973 . Abstract , it was sculpted by Fritz Røed .
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= Terry Fox =
Terrance Stanley " Terry " Fox CC OD ( July 28 , 1958 – June 28 , 1981 ) was a Canadian athlete , humanitarian , and cancer research activist . In 1980 , with one leg having been amputated , he embarked on a cross @-@ Canada run to raise money and awareness for cancer research . Although the spread of his cancer eventually forced him to end his quest after 143 days and 5 @,@ 373 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 339 mi ) , and ultimately cost him his life , his efforts resulted in a lasting , worldwide legacy . The annual Terry Fox Run , first held in 1981 , has grown to involve millions of participants in over 60 countries and is now the world 's largest one @-@ day fundraiser for cancer research ; over C $ 650 million has been raised in his name .
Fox was a distance runner and basketball player for his Port Coquitlam , British Columbia , high school and Simon Fraser University . His right leg was amputated in 1977 after he was diagnosed with osteosarcoma , though he continued to run using an artificial leg . He also played wheelchair basketball in Vancouver , winning three national championships .
In 1980 , he began the Marathon of Hope , a cross @-@ country run to raise money for cancer research . He hoped to raise one dollar from each of Canada 's 24 million people . He began with little fanfare from St. John 's , Newfoundland , in April and ran the equivalent of a full marathon every day . Fox had become a national star by the time he reached Ontario ; he made numerous public appearances with businessmen , athletes , and politicians in his efforts to raise money . He was forced to end his run outside Thunder Bay when the cancer spread to his lungs . His hopes of overcoming the disease and completing his marathon ended when he died nine months later .
He was the youngest person ever named a Companion of the Order of Canada . He won the 1980 Lou Marsh Award as the nation 's top sportsman and was named Canada 's Newsmaker of the Year in both 1980 and 1981 . Considered a national hero , he has had many buildings , roads and parks named in his honour across the country .
= = Early life and cancer = =
Terry Fox was born on July 28 , 1958 , in Winnipeg , Manitoba , to Roland and Betty Fox . Rolland was a switchman for the Canadian National Railway . Terry had an elder brother , Fred , a younger brother , Darrell and a younger sister , Judith .
His family moved to Surrey , British Columbia in 1966 , then settled in Port Coquitlam in 1968 . His parents were dedicated to their family , and his mother was especially protective of her children ; it was through her that Fox developed his stubborn dedication to whatever task he committed to do . His father recalled that he was extremely competitive , noting that Terry hated to lose so much that he would continue at any activity until he succeeded .
He was an enthusiastic athlete , playing soccer , rugby and baseball as a child . His passion was for basketball and though he stood only five feet tall and was a poor player at the time , Fox sought to make his school team in grade eight . Bob McGill , Terry 's physical education teacher and basketball coach at Mary Hill Junior High School felt he was better suited to be a distance runner and encouraged him to take up the sport . Fox had no desire for cross @-@ country running , but took it up because he respected and wanted to please his coach . He was determined to continue playing basketball , even if he was the last substitute on the team . Fox played only one minute in his grade eight season but dedicated his summers to improving his play . He became a regular player in grade nine and earned a starting position in grade ten . In grade 12 , he won his high school 's athlete of the year award jointly with his best friend Doug Alward .
Though he was initially unsure if he wanted to go to university , Fox 's mother convinced him to enrol at Simon Fraser University , where he studied kinesiology as a stepping stone to becoming a physical education teacher . He tried out for the junior varsity basketball team , earning a spot ahead of more talented players due to his determination .
On November 12 , 1976 , as Fox was driving to the family home at Morrill Street in Port Coquitlam , he became distracted by nearby bridge construction , and crashed into the back of a pickup truck . While his car was left undriveable , Fox emerged with only a sore right knee . He again felt pain in December , but chose to ignore it until the end of basketball season . By March 1977 , the pain had intensified and he finally went to a hospital , where he was diagnosed with osteosarcoma , a form of cancer that often starts near the knees . Fox believed his car accident weakened his knee and left it vulnerable to the disease , though his doctors argued there was no connection . He was told that his leg had to be amputated , he would require chemotherapy treatment , and that recent medical advances meant he had a 50 percent chance of survival . Fox learned that two years before the figure would have been only 15 percent ; the improvement in survival rates impressed on him the value of cancer research .
With the help of an artificial leg , Fox was walking three weeks after the amputation . He then progressed to playing golf with his father . Doctors were impressed with Fox 's positive outlook , stating it contributed to his rapid recovery . He endured sixteen months of chemotherapy and found the time he spent in the British Columbia Cancer Control Agency facility difficult as he watched fellow cancer patients suffer and die from the disease . Fox ended his treatment with new purpose : he felt he owed his survival to medical advances and wished to live his life in a way that would help others find courage .
In the summer of 1977 , Rick Hansen , working with the Canadian Wheelchair Sports Association , invited Fox to try out for his wheelchair basketball team . Although he was undergoing chemotherapy treatments at the time , Fox 's energy impressed Hansen . Less than two months after learning how to play the sport , Fox was named a member of the team for the national championship in Edmonton . He won three national titles with the team , and was named an all @-@ star by the North American Wheelchair Basketball Association in 1980 .
= = Marathon of Hope = =
The night before his cancer surgery , Fox had been given an article about Dick Traum , the first amputee to complete the New York City Marathon . The article inspired him ; he embarked on a 14 @-@ month training program , telling his family he planned to compete in a marathon himself . In private , he devised a more extensive plan . His hospital experiences had made Fox angry at how little money was dedicated to cancer research . He intended to run the length of Canada in the hope of increasing cancer awareness , a goal he initially only divulged to his friend Douglas Alward .
Fox ran with an unusual gait , as he was required to hop @-@ step on his good leg due to the extra time the springs in his artificial leg required to reset after each step . He found the training painful as the additional pressure he had to place on both his good leg and his stump led to bone bruises , blisters and intense pain . Fox found that after about 20 minutes of each run , he crossed a pain threshold and the run became easier .
In August 1979 , Fox competed in a marathon in Prince George , British Columbia . He finished in last place , ten minutes behind his closest competitor , but his effort was met with tears and applause from the other participants . Following the marathon , he revealed his full plan to his family . His mother discouraged him , angering Fox , though she later came to support the project . She recalled , " He said , ' I thought you 'd be one of the first persons to believe in me . ' And I wasn 't . I was the first person who let him down " . Fox initially hoped to raise $ 1 million , then $ 10 million , but later sought to raise $ 1 for each of Canada 's 24 million people .
= = = Preparation = = =
On October 15 , 1979 , Fox sent a letter to the Canadian Cancer Society in which he announced his goal and appealed for funding . He stated that he would " conquer " his disability , and promised to complete his run , even if he had to " crawl every last mile " . Explaining why he wanted to raise money for research , Fox described his personal experience of cancer treatment :
I soon realized that that would only be half my quest , for as I went through the 16 months of the physically and emotionally draining ordeal of chemotherapy , I was rudely awakened by the feelings that surrounded and coursed through the cancer clinic . There were faces with the brave smiles , and the ones who had given up smiling . There were feelings of hopeful denial , and the feelings of despair . My quest would not be a selfish one . I could not leave knowing these faces and feelings would still exist , even though I would be set free from mine . Somewhere the hurting must stop .... and I was determined to take myself to the limit for this cause .
Fox made no promises that his efforts would lead to a cure for cancer , but he closed his letter with the statement : " We need your help . The people in cancer clinics all over the world need people who believe in miracles . I am not a dreamer , and I am not saying that this will initiate any kind of definitive answer or cure to cancer . I believe in miracles . I have to . " The Cancer Society was skeptical of his dedication , but agreed to support Fox once he had acquired sponsors and requested he get a medical certificate from a heart specialist stating that he was fit to attempt the run . Fox was diagnosed with left ventricular hypertrophy – an enlarged heart – a condition commonly associated with athletes . Doctors warned Fox of the potential risks he faced , though they did not consider his condition a significant concern . They endorsed his participation when he promised that he would stop immediately if he began to experience any heart problems .
A second letter was sent to several corporations seeking donations for a vehicle , running shoes and to cover the other costs of the run . Fox sent other letters asking for grants to buy a running leg . He observed that while he was grateful to be alive following his cancer treatment , " I remember promising myself that , should I live , I would rise up to meet this new challenge [ of fundraising for cancer research ] face to face and prove myself worthy of life , something too many people take for granted . " The Ford Motor Company donated a camper van , while Imperial Oil contributed fuel , and Adidas his running shoes . Fox turned away any company that requested he endorse their products and refused any donation that carried conditions as he insisted that nobody was to profit from his run .
= = = Trek across Canada = = =
The Marathon began on April 12 , 1980 , when Fox dipped his right leg in the Atlantic Ocean near St. John 's , Newfoundland , and filled two large bottles with ocean water . He intended to keep one as a souvenir and pour the other into the Pacific Ocean upon completing his journey at Victoria , British Columbia . Fox was supported on his run by Doug Alward , who drove the van and cooked meals .
Fox was met with gale force winds , heavy rain and a snowstorm in the first days of his run . He was initially disappointed with the reception he received , but was heartened upon arriving in Port aux Basques , Newfoundland , where the town 's 10 @,@ 000 residents presented him with a donation of over $ 10 @,@ 000 . Throughout the trip , Fox frequently expressed his anger and frustration to those he saw as impeding the run , and he fought regularly with Alward . By the time they reached Nova Scotia , they were barely on speaking terms , and it was arranged for Fox 's brother Darrell , then 17 , to join them as a buffer . Fox left the Maritimes on June 10 and faced new challenges entering Quebec due to his group 's inability to speak French and drivers who continually forced him off the road . Fox arrived in Montreal on June 22 , one @-@ third of the way through his 8 @,@ 000 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @,@ 000 mi ) journey , having collected over $ 200 @,@ 000 in donations . Around this time , Terry Fox 's run caught the attention of Isadore Sharp who was the founder and CEO of Four Seasons Hotel and Resorts – and who had lost a son to melanoma in 1978 just a year after Terry 's diagnosis . Sharp was intrigued by the story of a one @-@ legged kid " trying to do the impossible " and run across the country ; so he offered food and accommodation at his hotels en route . When Terry was discouraged because so few people were making donations , Sharp pledged $ 2 a mile [ to the run ] and persuaded close to 1 @,@ 000 other corporations to do the same . Sharp 's encouragement persuaded Terry to continue with the Marathon of Hope . Convinced by the Canadian Cancer Society that arriving in Ottawa for Canada Day would aid fundraising efforts , he remained in Montreal for a few extra days .
Fox crossed into Ontario at the town of Hawkesbury on the last Saturday in June . He was met by a brass band and thousands of residents who lined the streets to cheer him on , while the Ontario Provincial Police gave him an escort throughout the province . Despite the sweltering heat of summer , he continued to run 26 miles ( 42 km ) per day . On his arrival in Ottawa , Fox met Governor General Ed Schreyer and Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and was the guest of honour at numerous sporting events in the city . In front of 16 @,@ 000 fans , he performed a ceremonial kickoff at a Canadian Football League game and was given a standing ovation . Fox 's journal reflected his growing excitement at the reception he had received as he began to understand how deeply moved Canadians were by his efforts .
On July 11 , a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 people met Fox in Toronto , where he was honoured in Nathan Phillips Square . As he ran to the square , he was joined on the road by many people , including National Hockey League star Darryl Sittler , who presented Fox with his 1980 All @-@ Star Game jersey . The Cancer Society estimated it collected $ 100 @,@ 000 in donations that day alone . As he continued through southern Ontario , he was met by Hockey Hall of Famer Bobby Orr who presented him with a cheque for $ 25 @,@ 000 . Fox considered meeting Orr the highlight of his journey .
As Fox 's fame grew , the Cancer Society scheduled him to attend more functions and give more speeches . Fox attempted to accommodate any request that he believed would raise money , no matter how far out of his way it took him . He bristled , however , at what he felt were media intrusions into his personal life , for example when the Toronto Star reported that he had gone on a date . Fox was left unsure whom he could trust in the media after negative articles began to emerge , including one by the Globe and Mail that characterized him as a " tyrannical brother " who verbally abused Darrell and claimed he was running because he held a grudge against a doctor who had misdiagnosed his condition , allegations he referred to as " trash " .
The physical demands of running a marathon every day took its toll on Fox 's body . Apart from the rest days in Montreal taken at the request of the Cancer Society , he refused to take a day off , even on his 22nd birthday . He frequently suffered shin splints and an inflamed knee . He developed cysts on his stump and experienced dizzy spells . At one point , he suffered a soreness in his ankle that would not go away . Although he feared he had developed a stress fracture , he ran for three more days before seeking medical attention , and was then relieved to learn it was tendonitis and could be treated with painkillers . Fox rejected calls for him to seek regular medical checkups , and dismissed suggestions he was risking his future health .
In spite of his immense recuperative capacity , Fox found that by late August he was exhausted before he began his day 's run . On September 1 , outside Thunder Bay , he was forced to stop briefly after he suffered an intense coughing fit and experienced pains in his chest . Unsure what to do , he resumed running as the crowds along the highway shouted out their encouragement . A few miles later , short of breath and with continued chest pain , he asked Alward to drive him to a hospital . He feared immediately that he had run his last kilometer . The next day , Fox held a tearful press conference during which he announced that his cancer had returned and spread to his lungs . He was forced to end his run after 143 days and 5 @,@ 373 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 339 mi ) . Fox refused offers to complete the run in his stead , stating that he wanted to complete his marathon himself .
= = = National response = = =
Fox had raised $ 1 @.@ 7 million by the time he was forced to abandon the Marathon . He realized that the nation was about to see the consequences of the disease , and hoped that this might lead to greater generosity . A week after his run ended , the CTV Television Network organized a nationwide telethon in support of Fox and the Canadian Cancer Society . Supported by Canadian and international celebrities , the five @-@ hour event raised $ 10 @.@ 5 million . Among the donations were $ 1 million each by the governments of British Columbia and Ontario , the former to create a new research institute to be founded in Fox 's name , and the latter an endowment given to the Ontario Cancer Treatment and Research Foundation . Donations continued throughout the winter , and by the following April , over $ 23 million had been raised .
Supporters and well wishers from around the world inundated Fox with letters and tokens of support . At one point , he was receiving more mail than the rest of Port Coquitlam combined . Such was his fame that one letter addressed simply to " Terry Fox , Canada " was successfully delivered .
In September 1980 , he was invested in a special ceremony as a Companion of the Order of Canada ; he was the youngest person to be so honoured . The Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia named him to the Order of the Dogwood , the province 's highest award . Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame commissioned a permanent exhibit , and Fox was named the winner of the Lou Marsh Award for 1980 as the nation 's top athlete . He was named Canada 's 1980 Newsmaker of the Year . The Ottawa Citizen described the national response to his marathon as " one of the most powerful outpourings of emotion and generosity in Canada 's history " .
= = Death = =
In the following months , Fox received multiple chemotherapy treatments ; however , the disease continued to spread . As his condition worsened , Canadians hoped for a miracle and Pope John Paul II sent a telegram saying that he was praying for Fox . Doctors turned to experimental interferon treatments , though their effectiveness against osteogenic sarcoma was unknown . He suffered an adverse reaction to his first treatment , but continued the program after a period of rest .
Fox was re @-@ admitted to the Royal Columbian Hospital in New Westminster on June 19 , 1981 , with chest congestion and developed pneumonia . He fell into a coma and died at 4 : 35 a.m. PDT on June 28 , 1981 , with his family by his side . The Government of Canada ordered flags across the country lowered to half mast , an unprecedented honour that was usually reserved for statesmen . Addressing the House of Commons , Trudeau said , " It occurs very rarely in the life of a nation that the courageous spirit of one person unites all people in the celebration of his life and in the mourning of his death ... We do not think of him as one who was defeated by misfortune but as one who inspired us with the example of the triumph of the human spirit over adversity " .
His funeral in Port Coquitlam was attended by 40 relatives and 200 guests , and broadcast on national television ; hundreds of communities across Canada also held memorial services , a public memorial service was held on Parliament Hill in Ottawa , and Canadians again overwhelmed Cancer Society offices with donations .
= = Legacy = =
Fox remains a prominent figure in Canadian folklore . His determination united the nation ; people from all walks of life lent their support to his run and his memory inspires pride in all regions of the country . A 1999 national survey named him as Canada 's greatest hero , and he finished second to Tommy Douglas in the 2004 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation program The Greatest Canadian . Fox 's heroic status has been attributed to his image as an ordinary person attempting a remarkable and inspirational feat . Others have argued that Fox 's greatness derives from his audacious vision , his determined pursuit of his goal , his ability to overcome challenges such as his lack of experience and the very loneliness of his venture . As Fox 's advocate on The Greatest Canadian , media personality Sook @-@ Yin Lee compared him to a classic hero , Phidippides , the runner who delivered the news of the Battle of Marathon before dying , and asserted that Fox " embodies the most cherished Canadian values : compassion , commitment , perseverance " . She highlighted the juxtaposition between his celebrity , brought about by the unforgettable image he created , and his rejection of the trappings of that celebrity . Typically amongst Canadian icons , Fox is an unconventional hero , admired but not without flaws . An obituary in the Canadian Family Physician emphasized his humanity and noted that his anger – at his diagnosis , at press misrepresentations and at those he saw as encroaching on his independence – spoke against ascribing sainthood for Fox , and thus placed his achievements within the reach of all .
In September 2013 , Dr. Jay Wunder , a sarcoma specialist at Mount Sinai Hospital , Toronto , noted that survival rates for osteosarcoma have increased dramatically since Fox 's death . Most patient " get limb @-@ sparing or limb @-@ reconstructive surgery . Now the cure rate 's almost up to 80 per cent in younger patients . In older patients it 's more like 70 per cent . ... So that 's a pretty big turnaround in a couple of decades . " These advances in treatment might be partly attributable to the $ 650 million raised since Terry Fox started his Marathon of Hope .
= = = Attitudes to disability = = =
Fox expressed a robust attitude to his situation : he refused to regard himself as disabled , and would not allow anyone to pity him , telling a Toronto radio station that he found life more " rewarding and challenging " since he had lost his leg . His feat helped redefine Canadian views of disability and the inclusion of the disabled in society . Fox 's actions increased the visibility of people with disabilities , and in addition influenced the attitudes of those with disabilities , by showing them disability portrayed in a positive light . Rick Hansen commented that the run challenged society to focus on ability rather than disability . " What was perceived as a limitation became a great opportunity . People with disabilities started looking at things differently . They came away with huge pride " , he wrote .
In contrast , the narrative surrounding Fox has been critiqued as illustrating the media 's focus on stereotyped portrayals of the heroic and extraordinary achievements of people with disabilities , rather than more mundane accomplishments . Actor Alan Toy noted " Sure , it raised money for cancer research and sure it showed the human capacity for achievement . But a lot of disabled people are made to feel like failures if they haven 't done something extraordinary . They may be bankers or factory workers – proof enough of their usefulness to society . Do we have to be ' supercrips ' in order to be valid ? And if we 're not super , are we invalid ? " The media 's idealization of Fox has also been critiqued for emphasizing an individualistic approach to illness and disability , in which the body is a machine to be mastered , rather than the social model of disability , where societal attitudes and barriers to inclusion play a prominent role in determining who is disabled .
= = = Terry Fox Run = = =
One of Fox 's earliest supporters was Isadore Sharp , founder of the Four Seasons Hotels . Sharp had lost his own son to cancer and offered Fox and his companions free accommodation at his hotels . He donated $ 10 @,@ 000 and challenged 999 other businesses to do the same . Sharp also proposed an annual fundraising run in Fox 's name . Fox agreed , but insisted that the runs be non @-@ competitive . There were to be no winners or losers , and anyone who participated could run , walk or ride . Sharp faced opposition to the project . The Cancer Society feared that a fall run would detract from its traditional April campaigns , while other charities believed that an additional fundraiser would leave less money for their causes . Sharp persisted , and he , the Four Seasons Hotels and the Fox family organized the first Terry Fox Run on September 13 , 1981 .
Over 300 @,@ 000 people took part and raised $ 3 @.@ 5 million in the first Terry Fox Run . Schools across Canada were urged to join the second run , held on September 19 , 1982 . School participation has continued since , evolving into the National School Run Day . The runs , which raised over $ 20 million in its first six years , grew into an international event as over one million people in 60 countries took part in 1999 , raising $ 15 million that year alone . By the Terry Fox Run 's 25th anniversary , more than three million people were taking part annually . Grants from the Terry Fox Foundation , which organizes the runs , have helped Canadian scientists make numerous advances in cancer research . The Terry Fox Run is the world 's largest one @-@ day fundraiser for cancer research , and over $ 600 million has been raised in his name . The 30th Terry Fox Run was held September 19 , 2010 .
= = = Honours = = =
The physical memorials in Canada named after Fox include :
Approximately 32 roads and streets , including the Terry Fox Courage Highway near Thunder Bay , near where Fox ended his run and where a statue of him was erected as a monument ;
14 schools , including a new school in a suburb of Montreal that was renamed Terry Fox Elementary School shortly after he died , and the Port Coquitlam high school , from which he had graduated , which was renamed Terry Fox Secondary School on January 18 , 1986 ;
14 other buildings , including many athletic centres and the Terry Fox Research Institute in Vancouver ;
Seven statues , including the Terry Fox Monument in Ottawa , which was the genesis of The Path of Heroes , a federal government initiative that seeks to honour the people that shaped the nation ;
nine fitness trails ;
A previously unnamed mountain in the Canadian Rockies in the Selwyn range , which was named Mount Terry Fox by the government of British Columbia ; the area around it is now known as Mount Terry Fox Provincial Park ;
The Terry Fox Fountain of Hope was in 1982 installed on the grounds of Rideau Hall ;
The Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker CCGS Terry Fox , which was commissioned in 1983 ; and
In 2011 , a series of bronze sculptures of Fox in motion , designed by author Douglas Coupland and depicting Fox running toward the Pacific Ocean , was unveiled outside BC Place in downtown Vancouver .
In 2012 , Fox was inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame in the Builder category in recognition of his public service in the name of research fundraising .
Shortly after his death , Fox was named the Newsmaker of the Year for 1981 , and Canada Post announced the production of a commemorative stamp in 1981 , bypassing its traditionally held position that stamps honouring people should not be created until ten years after their deaths . British rock star Rod Stewart was so moved by the Marathon of Hope that he was inspired to write and dedicate the song " Never Give Up on a Dream " – found on his 1981 album Tonight I 'm Yours – to Fox . Stewart also called his 1981 – 1982 tour of Canada the " Terry Fox Tour " .
The Terry Fox Hall of Fame was established in 1994 to recognize individuals that have made contributions that improved the quality of life of disabled people . The Terry Fox Laboratory research centre was established in Vancouver to conduct leading edge research into the causes and potential cures for cancer .
The Royal Canadian Mint produced a special dollar coin in 2005 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Marathon of Hope . It was their first regular circulation coin to feature a Canadian .
In 2008 , Terry Fox was named a National Historic Person of Canada , a recognition given by the Canadian government to those persons who are considered to have played a nationally significant role in the history of the country . Fox 's designation was due to his status as an " enduring icon " , his personal qualities , and for the manner in which the Marathon of Hope had captivated the country and resonated deeply with Canadians .
Fox 's mother , Betty Fox , was one of eight people to carry the Olympic Flag into BC Place Stadium at the opening ceremonies of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . The games saw the Terry Fox Award bestowed on Olympic athletes who embodied Fox 's characteristics of determination and humility in the face of adversity .
Beginning in 2015 Manitoba designated the first Monday in August , formerly known as Civic Holiday , as Terry Fox Day .
= = = Films = = =
Fox 's story was dramatized in the 1983 biopic The Terry Fox Story . Produced by Home Box Office , the film aired as a television movie in the United States and had a theatrical run in Canada . The film starred amputee actor Eric Fryer and Robert Duvall , and was the first film made exclusively for pay television . The movie received mixed but generally positive reviews . However , it was criticized by Fox 's family over how it portrayed his temper . The Terry Fox Story was nominated for eight Genie Awards , and won five , including Best Picture and Best Actor .
A second movie , titled Terry , focused on the Marathon of Hope , was produced by the CTV Television Network in 2005 . Fox was portrayed by Shawn Ashmore . He is not an amputee ; digital editing was used to superimpose a prosthesis over his real leg . The film was endorsed by Fox 's family , and portrayed his attitude more positively than the first movie . Canadian National Basketball Association star Steve Nash , who himself was inspired by Fox when he was a child , directed a 2010 documentary Into the Wind , which aired on ESPN as part of its 30 for 30 series .
= = = Steve Fonyo and Rick Hansen = = =
Terry Fox was not the first person to attempt to run across Canada . Mark Kent crossed the country in 1974 as he raised money for the Canadian team at the 1976 Summer Olympics . While he lived , Fox refused to let anyone else complete the Marathon of Hope , having promised to finish it himself once he recovered . Steve Fonyo , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old who suffered from the same form of cancer and who also had a leg amputated , sought in 1984 to duplicate Fox 's run , calling his effort the " Journey for Lives " . After leaving St. John 's on March 31 , Fonyo reached the point where Fox was forced to end his marathon at the end of November , and completed the transcontinental run on May 29 , 1985 . The Journey for Lives raised over $ 13 million for cancer research .
Canadian Paralympic athlete Rick Hansen , who had recruited Fox to play on his wheelchair basketball team in 1977 , was similarly inspired by the Marathon of Hope . Hansen , who first considered circumnavigating the globe in his wheelchair in 1974 , began the Man in Motion World Tour in 1985 with the goal of raising $ 10 million towards research into spinal cord injuries . As Fonyo had , Hansen paused at the spot Fox 's run ended to honour the late runner . Hansen completed his world tour in May 1987 after 792 days and 40 @,@ 073 kilometres ( 24 @,@ 900 mi ) ; he travelled through 34 countries and raised over $ 26 million .
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= Council of Reims ( 1148 ) =
In 1148 , a Council of Reims was called by Pope Eugene III to consider a number of regulations , or canons , for the Church , as well as to debate some other issues . Originally the summons for the council went out in October 1147 and it was supposed to be held in Trier , which is now in Germany , but conditions in Trier were such that it was moved to Reims , in France , for February 1148 . A number of the summoned bishops and other church officials did not attend and Eugene suspended many of the non @-@ attendees , excepting the Italian ecclesiastics , who were excused . The council lasted 11 days , and convened on 21 March 1148 . From 400 to 1100 ecclesiastics are considered to have attended , although this number does not include the various servants and officials of the attendees , who would have swelled the numbers .
After the conclusion of the council , Eugene held a consistory trial of Gilbert of Poitiers , the Bishop of Poitiers , who was accused of heretical teachings . In the end , Gilbert was allowed to return to his bishopric .
= = Preliminaries and attendees = =
The council was first called on 11 October 1147 by Eugene , who ordered the bishops and others summoned to the council to assemble at Trier on 21 March 1148 . This is from a letter sent to Henry Zdík , the Bishop of Olmuetz by the pope . However , a letter sent by the pope on the next day , 12 October 1147 , to Eberhard , the Archbishop of Salzburg , named Troyes as the location for the council . It is likely that Troyes , however , was a scribal error , as a further letter of Eugene 's , to Suger , Abbot of St Denis , dated 6 October 1147 , named Trier as the location also , thus confirming the location given in the letter of 11 October .
The papal entourage arrived in Trier on 30 November 1147 , but shortly after arrival the pope decided to move the proceedings because of complaints from the residents of Trier , and announced in February 1148 that the council would move to Reims , but still on the date given before . A feature of the council was that the pope ordered the attendance of the various bishops and other officials . Although some requested attendees were excused , it was mostly due to ill health , not to the need to see to the business of their offices . Those who did not attend were suspended from office . The Italian bishops , however , were mostly excused from attendance , as Eugene held a council at Cremona in July 1148 where the Reims decrees were announced .
Although the number of Spanish bishops who attended is unknown , the Archbishop of Toledo , Raymund , did attend . King Alfonso VII of León and Castile interceded with the pope to lift the sentences against those bishops who did not attend . King Stephen of England refused permission for any of the English bishops to attend , except for the bishops of Hereford , Norwich and Chichester . It was the papal summons which caused the Archbishop of Canterbury , Theobald of Bec , to quarrel with his king , after Stephen refused the archbishop permission to go to the council . Theobald instead managed to evade the guards placed on him and hired a fishing boat to take him across the English Channel to attend the council .
The precise number of bishops , archbishops , and abbots who attended is unknown . Estimates range from 1 @,@ 100 to 400 , with the lower number being much more likely . The attendees were from what were later the countries of France , Germany , England , and Spain , and in keeping with the times , would have included not just the prelates who were summoned , but also their servants and officials , making the true number of people in Reims impossible to know .
= = Council = =
The opening of the council took place on 21 March 1148 at Reims Cathedral on a Sunday . Eugene and his attendants had arrived in Reims by 9 March . The main business of the council was the debate on a number of canons , or rules , for the church that would be announced . Most of these were not new decrees , having been promulgated by Eugene 's predecessor at the councils of Reims in 1131 and at the Lateran council of 1139 . All of the proposed canons were approved , except for one on clerical attire which was opposed by Rainald of Dassel and other German ecclesiastics . This canon had prohibited cloaks made of fur . Another canon condemning clerical marriage was greeted with amusement , as the council members felt that all clergy should already know that marriage was forbidden to them .
The Reims council also condemned and ordered the arrest of Éon de l 'Étoile , a Breton heretic . He was eventually tortured into confession and imprisoned until his death in 1150 . Further decrees condemned the Anacletans , supporters of an earlier antipope , who had previously been condemned in 1136 . Further side business was the settling of a dispute between two Norman abbots – Eustachius of Jumieges Abbey and Robert of the Abbey of St. Vincent , Le Mans , which was handed to two cardinals to decide . The two prelates reached a decision on 5 April . Other disputes , including ones between abbots , were also handled at the council , although not necessarily during the council deliberations . Also included in the council 's business was the confirmation of the excommunication of the Bishop of Dol and the Bishop of Brieux . Although it was reported that the Bishop of Orleans and the Bishop of Troyes were deposed by the council , this is erroneous , and probably stemmed from the number of ecclesiastics who were suspended for non @-@ attendance .
A number of ecclesiastics died at or shortly after the council , including Robert de Bethune , the Bishop of Hereford , who fell ill on the third day of the council and died on either 14 or 16 April 1148 . The Bishop of Angouleme died in June , after attending the council . The Archbishop of Trier , Albero de Montreuil , was so ill he was carried to the council on a horse litter .
The council is said to have lasted 11 days in total , but it is likely that it was shorter , given the large increase in the population of Reims , which would have strained the resources of the town . This gives an end date of the council of 1 April 1148 .
= = Consistory = =
Although the council probably ended on 1 April , Eugene asked a number of attendees to stay after the formal close of the council to consider the case of Gilbert of Poitiers , who was under investigation for heresy , connected with his teachings . The main concern against Gilbert seems to have been his convoluted vocabulary and style of writing , which led to his writings being easily misunderstood . The specific problem came when Gilbert 's writings attempted to explicate the relationship between God and his " divinity " , which led to his opponents claiming that Gilbert was attempting to create two Gods , rather than just one . His opponents claimed that this occurred in Gilbert 's treatise on Boethius ' theological work De Trinitate .
Gilbert had previously been investigated by Eugene at Paris in April 1147 , but this hearing came to nothing for two reasons . One was that Gilbert 's opponents were not unified in what they opposed in Gilbert 's teachings . The second reason was that no one had a copy of the treatise on Boethius by Gilbert that was in dispute . Prior to the second hearing at Reims , Bernard of Clairvaux , who was opposed to Gilbert 's teachings , held a private meeting with a number of the attendees , where Bernard attempted to pressure them to condemn Gilbert . This offended the various cardinals in attendance , who then proceeded to insist that they were the only persons who could judge the case .
Although connected with the council , Gilbert was tried after the council closed , at a consistory held in the Archbishop of Reims ' chambers . A consistory was a specialized form of trial held to investigate questionable theological teachings , and was beginning to be used for this purpose in this period . The consistory lasted two days , and included John of Salisbury , who had previously been a student of Gilbert 's , but was now in Eugene 's service . The trial likely took place on 2 – 3 April 1148 , as it lasted took two days , and most accounts state that it took place during the week before Palm Sunday , which was 4 April that year . As the consistory took place after the closing of the council on 1 April , that only allows 2 and 3 April for the trial . However , if the council closed earlier than 1 April , then the trial could have taken place on 29 – 30 March 1148 . In the end , no verdict of heresy was placed against Gilbert , who remained Bishop of Poitiers until his death in 1154 .
Besides Bernard , other ecclesiastics in opposition to Gilbert were Robert of Melun and Peter the Lombard . Robert was a teacher at both Paris and Melun , and later became Bishop of Hereford . Another opponent was Otto of Freising , who was unable to attend the trial .
No official records of the trial were kept , which led to considerable confusion in the future .
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= Hurricane Helene ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Helene was the ninth tropical storm , fourth hurricane , and strongest hurricane of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season .
Helene was a long @-@ lived Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that formed in the extreme southeastern part of the North Atlantic Ocean , peaking as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale as it traversed the central Atlantic . It never affected land until the very end of its lifespan as a weak extratropical system , which had minor impact in the northern British Isles .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the second week of September , a strong tropical wave began to emerge off the coast of Africa . It was well @-@ organized from the start , and on September 11 , even before it emerged off the coast , the National Hurricane Center believed that it could quickly develop into a tropical depression . That is indeed what happened , and it became Tropical Depression Eight on the morning of September 12 . The enormous size of the depression made it fairly slow to develop , combined with some easterly wind shear in the eastern Atlantic and influence of the Saharan Air Layer to the north as it tracked south of the Cape Verde islands . Convection was also slow to build in , with little banding at first . The initial strengthening was delayed as a result . However , on September 13 , the organization improved as banding became better defined , and that evening , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Helene .
The storm slowly strengthened over the warm waters of the eastern Atlantic thereafter as it tracked west @-@ northwest . Some dry air from the Saharan Air Layer continued to slow development on September 14 as Helene remained a low @-@ end tropical storm . However , a bout of intensification took place on September 15 as shear diminished . The storm became much better organized with well @-@ defined banding , and leveled off that evening at just under hurricane intensity . On the morning of September 16 , the storm began to develop a ragged eye , and the storm strengthened to hurricane status . The intensity leveled off for a while as a marginal Category 1 hurricane , as the intensification was slowed by the presence of moderate wind shear despite the absence of significant dry air . Late that evening , the storm began to slowly intensify once again .
On September 17 , the intensification became more rapid and Helene quickly became a Category 2 hurricane that morning as the eye became clearer and surrounded by deep convection . Helene also turned more northward and slowed down in the central Atlantic , which was in response to a weakness in the subtropical ridge farther north created by Gordon to the north . The northward turn shifted the course away from any land areas . The intensification continued through the afternoon , and that evening , Helene strengthened into a major hurricane with 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 962 mbar . As shear remained low and the oceans remained warm , Helene intensified slightly more , peaking as a solid Category 3 hurricane with 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) winds early on September 18 . At that time , Helene and Gordon were at roughly the same longitude in the open ocean . Operationally , Helene was estimated to have had 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) winds , but the post @-@ storm analysis downgraded it slightly . As Gordon moved eastward on the afternoon of 18th , a narrow ridge built in , forcing Helene westward . The eyewall collapsed somewhat , and Helene weakened slightly to a Category 2 hurricane , where it leveled off for about 48 hours until September 20 due to a lengthy eyewall replacement cycle and an elongated cloud pattern . On the 20th , Helene turned back to the northwest and weakened slightly due to a slight increase in wind shear . That afternoon , it was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane , which Helene remained until becoming extratropical .
Early on September 21 , the motion shifted to the north as it moved along the northwest periphery of the subtropical ridge . That general motion continued throughout the day , however , Helene began to turn more northeastward that evening along the edge of the subtropical ridge , east of Bermuda . A decrease in wind shear and relatively warm water around 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) kept the intensity mostly stationary , keeping Helene as a Category 1 hurricane . The intensity held around 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) before strengthening slightly late on September 22 , despite losing some tropical characteristics ( it was operationally downgraded to a tropical storm for a brief period ) as it accelerated northeast in the north Atlantic . A QuikSCAT analysis early on September 23 confirmed a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane with 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) winds .
Helene transitioned into a " hybrid " storm with both tropical and extratropical characteristics that afternoon , with both a deep warm core and an asymmetric , frontal @-@ like appearance . After that , increased shear weakened Helene once again , although it remained a hurricane @-@ strength storm until it was fully extratropical on the morning of September 24 . After becoming extratropical , the storm weakened as it tracked eastward , becoming a gale center west of Ireland early on September 27 . It eventually merged with a larger extratropical low near the northern end of the British Isles late on the 27th .
= = Impact = =
While a tropical system , Helene never approached land . Three ships were caught in the outer bands of Helene ; the strongest of which reported 56 mph ( 91 km / h ) sustained winds early on September 23 in the north Atlantic . Though it remained far away from the island , the hurricane produced rough waves in Bermuda . As a weakened extratropical system , strong wind gusts were reported in Ireland and northern Scotland . The strongest reported wind gust in Ireland was at the Valentia Observatory , where 56 mph ( 91 km / h ) gusts were reported . In Scotland , the strongest gust was on South Uist Island in the Outer Hebrides , where 74 mph ( 118 km / h ) gusts were reported . No damage or fatalities were reported as a result of Helene .
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= Leroy Petry =
Leroy Arthur Petry ( born 29 July 1979 ) is a career United States Army soldier , now retired . He received the U.S. military 's highest decoration , the Medal of Honor , for his actions in Afghanistan in 2008 during Operation Enduring Freedom .
Born in Santa Fe , New Mexico , Petry had an active youth , and joined the Army after high school . Completing the Ranger Indoctrination Program , he was deployed several times to both Iraq and Afghanistan as a member of the 2nd Battalion , 75th Ranger Regiment . On 26 May 2008 during his seventh deployment , Petry was a member of a team on a mission to capture a Taliban target in Paktia Province . Despite being wounded in both legs by gunfire , Petry continued to fight and give orders . When a grenade landed between him and two other soldiers , Petry grabbed it and attempted to throw it away from them . He saved the soldiers ' lives but the grenade exploded , severing his right hand .
Petry became the second recent living recipient of the medal for the war in Afghanistan in 2011 when he received the award from U.S. President Barack Obama . Opting to reenlist in spite of his injury , Petry remained on active duty in the U.S. Army until his retirement on 29 July 2014 . As part of paying tribute to Missing in Action / Prisoners of War ( MIA / POW ) , Leroy completed a 10 @-@ day cross country Run For The Wall ( RFTW ) in May 2015 . That month he was also part of a four @-@ man ceremonial team to lay a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknowns at Arlington National Cemetery .
= = Early life and education = =
Leroy Petry was born on 29 July 1979 , in Santa Fe , New Mexico , to Larry and Lorella ( Tapia ) Petry . He is the third of five sons , with older brothers Larry Armando and Lloyd , and younger brothers Lyndon and Lincoln . In his youth , he was described as very active and likable by his friends and family . Petry attended Santa Fe High School but was a poor student ; he repeated his freshman year . As a sophomore , he transferred to St. Catherine Indian School , a private school in Santa Fe , where his academic performance substantially improved . Growing up , Petry played football and basketball , and he also enjoyed fixing cars and cooking in his spare time . He graduated in 1998 ; his was the last class to graduate from St. Catherine before it closed .
He spent the next year studying at New Mexico Highlands University in Las Vegas , New Mexico . He also worked at the vehicle maintenance department of Pecos Public Transportation with his father and grandfather , and made signs at a local business , Al 's Signs .
= = Career = =
Influenced by a cousin who joined the U.S. Army Rangers , Petry enlisted in the Army in Santa Fe in September 1999 . He also became a Ranger . He attended Basic Combat Training and Advanced Individual Training at Fort Benning , Georgia . At the time of the September 11th attacks , he was training to become a Ranger .
Upon completion of his training , Petry was assigned to 2nd Battalion , 75th Ranger Regiment based at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord , in Washington state . Petry had a total of eight deployments : two supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom and six supporting Operation Enduring Freedom . In all , Petry spent a total of 28 months deployed . During his time in Iraq and Afghanistan , Petry served in a number of positions , including as a grenadier , squad automatic rifleman , fireteam leader , squad leader , operations sergeant , and a weapons squad leader .
= = = Medal of Honor = = =
On 26 May 2008 , Staff Sergeant Petry and his unit were on a mission in Paktia Province , Afghanistan . He was assigned to D Company , 2nd Battalion , 75th Ranger Regiment , which was on a daylight raid to capture a high @-@ value target from the Taliban . Petry was to locate with the platoon headquarters in the target building once it was secured . Once there , he was to serve as the senior non @-@ commissioned officer at the site for the remainder of the operation . The team of 70 Rangers encountered about 40 Taliban , 12 of them armed . Almost immediately after getting out of the helicopters that delivered the unit to the attack site , the Rangers came under strong fire . Petry provided additional supervision to an assaulting squad during the clearance of a building , and afterward he took Private First Class Lucas Robinson to clear an outer courtyard .
Three Taliban fighters were in the courtyard , which had a chicken coop within it . The Taliban fired on Petry and Robinson ; Petry was wounded by one round that went through both his legs , and Robinson was wounded , being hit on the armor plate protecting his side . Petry led Robinson to the cover of the chicken coop , and reported the contact and their wounded condition . Petry threw a thermobaric grenade from cover . At the chicken coop , the two men were joined by Sergeant Daniel Higgins , who assessed the wounds of the two soldiers .
A Taliban fighter threw a grenade at their position which landed 10 meters from them ; it detonated , and the blast knocked the three soldiers to the ground , wounding Higgins , and further wounding Robinson . Shortly thereafter the three were joined by Staff Sergeant James Roberts and Specialist Christopher Gathercole . A Taliban fighter threw another grenade , which landed a few feet from Higgins and Robinson.Knowing the risk , Petry picked up and attempted to throw the grenade in the direction of the Taliban . Petry later recalled his immediate reaction was
" get it out of here , get it away from the guys and myself . And I reached over , leaned over to the right , grabbed it with my hand , and I threw it as hard as I could , what I thought was at the time . And as soon as I opened my hand to let it go , it just exploded instantly . And I came back , and the hand was completely severed off . "
The detonation amputated his right hand , and sprayed his body with shrapnel . Petry likely saved the two other soldiers from serious injury or death .
Petry placed a tourniquet on his right arm . Roberts began to fire at the Taliban fighters , suppressing them in the courtyard . An additional fighter on the east end of the courtyard fired , fatally wounding Gathercole . Higgins and Robinson returned fire , killing that fighter . They were joined by Sergeant First Class Jerod Staidle , the platoon sergeant , and Specialist Gary Depriest , a medic . Directing the medic to treat Gathercole , Petry was assisted by Staide and Higgins to the casualty collection point .
= = = Return to service = = =
Petry 's wounds resulted in his right arm having to be amputated below the elbow . He was evacuated to an American hospital in Germany , where he spent several weeks in recovery before being transferred to Carl R. Darnall Army Medical Center in Fort Hood , Texas . He now uses an advanced prosthetic in place of his right hand . On the prosthetic is a small plaque listing the names of the fallen Rangers of his regiment . After recovering , Petry did not seek a medical discharge ; instead , he deployed to Afghanistan between recovering and receiving the Medal of Honor . He was later promoted to the rank of sergeant first class .
Petry received the Medal of Honor from U.S. President Barack Obama on 12 July 2011 in a ceremony at the White House . He is the second living recipient of the medal , after Army Staff Sergeant Salvatore Giunta , for actions occurring after the Vietnam War . He is the ninth recipient for actions in Iraq or Afghanistan . Giunta was in attendance at the awarding ceremony . Petry later in 2011 attended the Medal of Honor ceremony of U.S. Marine Sergeant Dakota Meyer , the third living recipient of the medal since Vietnam .
Following this award , Petry was asked to appear on talk shows and at other gatherings , starting with Good Morning America . In his spare time , he stayed physically active . He has learned to golf , hunt , water ski , and drive all terrain vehicles with use of his prosthetic hand .
In 2010 , Petry re @-@ enlisted in the U.S. Army for an indefinite term of service . He was stationed at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord , Washington , where he served as a liaison officer for United States Special Operations Command 's Care Coalition Northwest Region . He assisted ill and injured Rangers as well as their families . In 2011 , Petry also began attending Pierce College , pursuing a bachelor of science degree in business management .
Although he had wanted to complete 20 years of active duty service , due to medical and " psychological issues " , Petry decided to seek medical retirement . On 23 July 2014 , Petry was promoted to Master Sergeant and was awarded the Legion of Merit during his retirement ceremony . He was inducted into the Honorable Order of Saint Maurice . He officially retired from the United States Army on 29 July 2014 , after nearly 15 years of service .
= = Awards and decorations = =
MSG Petry has received the following awards :
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty :
Staff Sergeant Leroy A. Petry distinguished himself by acts of gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty in action with an armed enemy in the vicinity of Paktya Province , Afghanistan , on 26 May 2008 . As a Weapons Squad Leader with D Company , 2nd Battalion , 75th Ranger Regiment , Staff Sergeant Petry moved to clear the courtyard of a house that potentially contained high @-@ value combatants . While crossing the courtyard , Staff Sergeant Petry and another Ranger were engaged and wounded by automatic weapons fire from enemy fighters . Still under enemy fire , and wounded in both legs , Staff Sergeant Petry led the other Ranger to cover . He then reported the situation and engaged the enemy with a hand grenade , providing suppression as another Ranger moved to his position . The enemy quickly responded by maneuvering closer and throwing grenades . The first grenade explosion knocked his two fellow Rangers to the ground and wounded both with shrapnel . A second grenade then landed only a few feet away from them . Instantly realizing the danger , Staff Sergeant Petry , unhesitatingly and with complete disregard for his safety , deliberately and selflessly moved forward , picked up the grenade , and in an effort to clear the immediate threat , threw the grenade away from his fellow Rangers . As he was releasing the grenade it detonated , amputating his right hand at the wrist and further injuring him with multiple shrapnel wounds . Although picking up and throwing the live grenade grievously wounded Staff Sergeant Petry , his gallant act undeniably saved his fellow Rangers from being severely wounded or killed . Despite the severity of his wounds , Staff Sergeant Petry continued to maintain the presence of mind to place a tourniquet on his right wrist before communicating the situation by radio in order to coordinate support for himself and his fellow wounded Rangers . Staff Sergeant Petry 's extraordinary heroism and devotion to duty are in keeping with the highest traditions of military service , and reflect great credit upon himself , 75th Ranger Regiment , and the United States Army .
= = Personal life = =
Petry and his wife Ashley have four children : son Landon as well as three children from Ashley 's previous relationship ; Brittany , Austin , and Reagan .
= = Honors = =
On 24 June 2013 , a 9 @-@ foot tall bronze and stainless steel statue of Petry by George Rivera , Governor of Pueblo of Pojoaque , was unveiled at Santa Fe City Hall . Among the visiting dignitaries was Medal of Honor recipient Bruce Crandall .
The city of Santa Fe announced that the South Meadows Bridge over the Santa Fe River will be rededicated as the " Sgt. First Class Leroy Arthur Petry Bridge . "
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= Paterson Clarence Hughes =
Paterson Clarence " Pat " Hughes , DFC ( 19 September 1917 – 7 September 1940 ) was an Australian fighter ace of World War II . Serving with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , he was credited with as many as seventeen aerial victories during the Battle of Britain , before being killed in action on 7 September 1940 . His tally made him the highest @-@ scoring Australian of the battle , and among the three highest @-@ scoring Australians of the war .
Born in Cooma , New South Wales , Hughes joined the Royal Australian Air Force as a cadet in 1936 . After graduating as a pilot , he chose to take a commission with the RAF . In July 1937 , he was assigned to No. 64 Squadron , which operated Hawker Demon and , later , Bristol Blenheim fighters . Posted to No. 234 Squadron following the outbreak of World War II , Hughes began flying Supermarine Spitfires as a flight commander . He shared in his unit 's first aerial victory on 8 July 1940 , and began scoring heavily against the Luftwaffe the following month . Known for his practice of attacking his targets at extremely close range , Hughes is generally thought to have died after his Spitfire was struck by flying debris from a German bomber that he had just shot down . He was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross , and was buried in England .
= = Early life = =
Paterson Clarence Hughes was born in Numeralla , near Cooma , New South Wales , on 19 September 1917 . He was the second @-@ youngest of twelve children , the last of four boys in his family . Hughes ' father was a teacher by profession but at the time of Pat 's birth was running the community post office ; christened Percival Clarence Hughes , and known as Percy , he had apparently adopted the name Paterson by the time of his marriage to Catherine Vennell in 1895 . Percy was also a writer , contributing to newspapers and magazines such as The Bulletin , and " Paterson " may have been homage to the poet Banjo Paterson . In any case , Pat shared his father 's interest in literature . He also grew to love the landscape of the local Monaro district in the shadow of the Snowy Mountains , which he described as " unrivalled in the magnificence and grandeur of its beauty " .
Hughes was educated at Cooma Public School until the age of twelve , when the family moved to Haberfield in Sydney ; his father was by then working as a labourer . He attended Petersham Boys ' School , becoming a prefect in 1932 and vice captain the following year . As well as playing sport , he was a keen aircraft modeller and built crystal radio sets . Having attained his intermediate certificate , Hughes entered Fort Street High School in February 1934 . He left after eight months to take up employment at Saunders ' Jewellers in George Street , Sydney , and enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 20 January 1936 . Hughes had also applied to , and been accepted by , the Royal Australian Navy , but chose the RAAF .
Training as an air cadet at RAAF Point Cook near Melbourne , Hughes learnt to fly in de Havilland Moths before progressing to Westland Wapitis in the middle of the year . A practical joker who bridled under RAAF discipline , his euphoria during his first solo on 11 March 1936 was such that he " went mad , whistled , sang and almost jumped for joy " . A fellow cadet recalled that Hughes " loved life and lived it at high pressure " . Upon graduation in December 1936 , Hughes was assessed as having " no outstanding qualities " despite being " energetic and keen " . Under a pre @-@ war arrangement between the British and Australian governments , he volunteered for transfer to the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , and sailed for the United Kingdom in January 1937 . His decision to transfer had not been quick or easy ; though keen to " try and do something special " in England , and intrigued by " a fascinating picture of easy life , beer and women " that had been presented to him , in the end he felt that it was simply " willed " that he should go .
= = Early RAF service = =
On 20 March 1937 , Hughes was granted a five @-@ year short @-@ service commission as a pilot officer in the RAF . Like some of his compatriots , he refused to exchange his dark @-@ blue RAAF uniform for the lighter @-@ coloured RAF one . He undertook advanced flying instruction at No. 2 Flying Training School in Digby , Lincolnshire . Slated to fly bombers , he appealed and in July was posted as a fighter pilot to No. 64 Squadron , which operated Hawker Demons out of RAF Martlesham Heath , Suffolk . The squadron was transferred to RAF Church Fenton , Yorkshire , in May 1938 . Hughes was promoted to flying officer on 19 November . No. 64 Squadron subsequently received Bristol Blenheim 1F twin @-@ engined fighters , and completed its conversion to the type in January 1939 .
Hughes was promoted to acting flight lieutenant in November 1939 and became a flight commander in the newly formed No. 234 Squadron , which , like No. 64 Squadron , came under the control of No. 13 Group in the north of England . On establishment the previous month at RAF Leconfield , East Yorkshire , No. 234 Squadron was equipped with Blenheims , Fairey Battles and Gloster Gauntlets ; it began re @-@ arming with Supermarine Spitfires in March 1940 and was operational two months later . The commanding officer , Squadron Leader Richard Barnett , rarely flew , and Hughes assumed responsibility for overseeing conversion to the Spitfire . " More experienced and more mature " than his fellow pilots , according to historian Stephen Bungay , the Australian " effectively led " No. 234 Squadron . By this time , Hughes had acquired a young Airedale Terrier known as Flying Officer Butch , who sometimes flew with him — against regulations . He had also met and begun dating Kathleen ( " Kay " ) Brodrick of Hull . On 19 June , Hughes and his squadron transferred to RAF St Eval , Cornwall , under the jurisdiction of the newly formed No. 10 Group in south @-@ west England .
= = Battle of Britain = =
As the Battle of Britain got under way in July 1940 , Hughes shared in No. 234 Squadron 's first confirmed aerial victories . He and his section of two other Spitfires shot down a German Junkers Ju 88 attacking convoys near Lands End on 8 July , and another south @-@ east of Plymouth during a dawn patrol on 28 July . A shared claim for a Ju 88 on 27 July could not be confirmed as destroyed ; after a chase over the water at heights as low as 50 feet ( 15 m ) , the German escaped , despite being struck in the engines and cockpit , and was credited to the section as " damaged " . German records , made available post @-@ war , confirm that a Junkers 88A piloted by Leutnant Ruckdeschel , was lost on this day . On 1 August , Hughes was seconded from No. 234 Squadron to help set up the only Gloster Gladiator @-@ equipped unit to operate during the Battle of Britain , No. 247 ( China British ) Squadron in Plymouth . The same day , he married Kay Brodrick , who likened him to Errol Flynn , in the register office at Bodmin , Cornwall . Apart from Flying Officer Butch , the witnesses were strangers ; Kay arrived alone , and no @-@ one from No. 234 Squadron could attend . Barnett was transferred out of No. 234 Squadron on 13 August , and Hughes took temporary command until the arrival of Squadron Leader Joe " Spike " O 'Brien four days later . By now the fighting was intensifying over southern England , and the squadron relocated from St Eval to RAF Middle Wallop , Hampshire , on 14 August . Almost immediately after Hughes landed the Luftwaffe bombed the airfield ; several ground staff and civilian workers were killed , but No. 234 Squadron 's Spitfires escaped damage .
It was following No. 234 Squadron 's move to Middle Wallop that Hughes began to score heavily against German fighters . On 15 August , in one of the costliest engagements of the Battle of Britain , known thereafter to the Luftwaffe as " Black Thursday " , Hughes claimed victories ( one of them shared ) over two Messerschmitt Me 110s . He again achieved dual success on 16 , 18 and 26 August , all six victims being Messerschmitt Bf 109s brought down in the vicinity of the Isle of Wight . Whereas in July he had fired at his targets from a range of 150 to 50 yards ( 137 to 46 m ) , it was now his habit to close to 30 yards ( 27 m ) , approximately three Spitfire lengths , before delivering his final burst ; he also made head @-@ on attacks against enemy aircraft . He had a narrow escape on the 16th after his second victory of the day , when he chased a quartet of Junkers Ju 87s and had his tailplane shot up from behind by another Bf 109 ; he dived and forced the German to overshoot , then broke off having exhausted his ammunition firing at his former attacker . In the pub with Kay and his squadron mates that evening , Hughes jokingly told his wife , " In case of accidents make sure you marry again " .
On 3 September , Hughes ' promotion to substantive flight lieutenant was promulgated in The London Gazette . He claimed three Me 110s in the space of fifteen minutes south of Haslemere on 4 September , two Bf 109s while patrolling Kenley the following day , and a Bf 109 destroyed plus one probable near Dover on 6 September ; he had to break off combat with the last @-@ mentioned when its tanks ruptured , covering Hughes ' canopy in oil . One of his victims on 5 September may have been Oberleutnant Franz von Werra , who was captured and subsequently became famous as " the one that got away " . Hughes and his protégé , Bob Doe , claimed half of No. 234 Squadron 's victories between mid @-@ August and early September .
Hughes was killed in action on the evening of 7 September 1940 , after he intercepted a Dornier Do 17 bomber taking part in a large @-@ scale attack on London . His Spitfire crashed in a field between Sundridge and Bessels Green in Kent . He apparently bailed out , but his parachute failed to open ; his body was found in a garden on Main Road , Sundridge , not far from the wreck of his Spitfire . The Dornier came down in the River Darent . No. 234 Squadron lost its commanding officer , O 'Brien , in the same action . Mystery surrounds exactly how Hughes came to grief , though his close @-@ in tactics are believed to have played a major part in it . The strain of regular combat without respite , manifesting itself in fatigue and spots before the eyes , may also have contributed . He is generally thought to have collided with flying wreckage from the crippled German bomber , rendering his Spitfire uncontrollable . It is also possible that Hughes accidentally rammed his target . Further speculation suggested that he was the victim of friendly fire from another British fighter attacking the same Dornier , or was struck by German bullets from a Bf 109 . Some observers on the ground , including collier Charles Hall , maintained that Hughes rammed the Dornier on purpose . Four days after his death , No. 234 Squadron was moved back to the relative quiet of Cornwall .
= = Legacy = =
The top @-@ scoring Australian flying ace of the Battle of Britain and one of fourteen Australian fighter pilots killed during the battle , Hughes has been described as " the inspiration and driving force behind No. 234 Squadron RAF " . He is generally credited with seventeen confirmed victories — fourteen solo and three shared . This tally puts him among the top ten Allied Battle of Britain aces . It also ranks him among the three highest @-@ scoring Australians of World War II , after Clive Caldwell with thirty victories ( twenty @-@ seven solo and three shared ) and Adrian Goldsmith with seventeen ( sixteen solo and one shared ) .
A war widow after barely five weeks of marriage , Kay Hughes was inconsolable in her loss : " I wept until I could cry no more " . Flying Officer Butch ran out of the mess on the day of his master 's death , and was never seen again . Following a service at St James ' , Sutton @-@ on @-@ Hull , on 13 September 1940 , Hughes was buried in the churchyard at Row G , Grave 4 . A week later , Kay discovered she was pregnant , but eventually miscarried . She subsequently drove ambulances for the British war effort . News of his son 's marriage came as " a complete surprise " to Percy Hughes , who only learned of his daughter @-@ in @-@ law 's existence from the Australian Air Board 's casualty letter . Having married three more times after Hughes ' death , Kay died on 28 June 1983 and , in accordance with her wishes , her ashes were buried with her first husband , whose headstone was amended to read " In loving memory of his wife Kathleen " .
Hughes was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) on 22 October 1940 for his " skill and determination " as a flight commander and " gallantry in his attacks on the enemy " ; Squadron Leader O 'Brien had recommended the decoration a week before their deaths . Kay was presented with the medal at Buckingham Palace on 23 June 1942 . In Australia , Hughes is commemorated at Christ 's Church , Kiama , with a memorial tablet placed by his sister Muriel . A special memorial is dedicated to him at Monaghan Hayes Place , Cooma . His name appears on the Battle of Britain Roll of Honour in Westminster Abbey , and on supplementary panel 12 in the Commemorative Area of the Australian War Memorial ( AWM ) , Canberra . The AWM also holds his DFC and service medals in its collection . Kay had given the medals to her sisters @-@ in @-@ law to pass on to Percy in the 1950s and , after being lost during an Anzac Day parade in the 1960s , they went through several family members ' hands before turning up in the safe of the Kiama Country Women 's Association ; they were donated to the AWM in 1990 . On 7 September 2005 , Charles Hall 's sons dedicated a plaque in Hughes ' honour at the house where he fell in Main Road , Sundridge ; Bob Doe attended , expressing his thanks for " an Australian who came to help us when we needed him " . Shoreham Aircraft Museum in Kent unveiled a memorial stone to Hughes at Sundridge on 23 August 2008 . On 15 September 2014 , the AWM 's daily Last Post Ceremony was dedicated to Hughes ' memory .
= = Combat record = =
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= USS Harding ( DD @-@ 91 ) =
USS Harding ( DD @-@ 91 ) was a Wickes @-@ class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I. She was the first ship named in honor of Seth Harding .
Launched in 1918 , she undertook training exercises off the East Coast of the United States sporadically for several years . In 1919 , she escorted a major transatlantic flight of Curtiss NC seaplane . Later that year , she was selected to be converted into a seaplane tender , and was then used to support naval aviator training off Naval Air Station Pensacola . She took one trip to Veracruz with emergency medical supplies , and was also on hand during aircraft bombing tests against decommissioned German ships , including the sinking of the SMS Ostfriesland . She was decommissioned in 1922 and sold for scrapping in 1936 .
= = Design and construction = =
Harding was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with seven of her sisters , were constructed at Union Iron Works shipyards in San Francisco , California using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem Steel .
She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 060 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 040 long tons ; 1 @,@ 170 short tons ) an overall length of 315 feet 5 inches ( 96 @.@ 14 m ) , a beam of 31 feet 8 inches ( 9 @.@ 65 m ) and a draught of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) . On trials , Harding reached a speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns , three .30 caliber machine guns , and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 122 officers and enlisted men . She was driven by two Curtis steam turbines powered by four Yarrow boilers .
Specifics on Harding 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers known unofficially as the ' Liberty Type ' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works , which used Parsons or Westinghouse turbines . The ' Liberty ' type destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight .
Harding was the first ship to be named for Seth Harding . The second Harding was a Gleaves @-@ class destroyer commissioned in 1943 .
= = Service history = =
Harding was launched on 4 July 1918 from Union Iron Works . She was sponsored by the wife of George A. Armes , and embarked under the command of Commander Henry D. Cooke . On 3 February 1919 , she was assigned to the United States Atlantic Fleet and sailed for Newport , Rhode Island via Santa Cruz , California . Transiting the Panama Canal , she arrived on 18 February . Two days later she moved to Boston , Massachusetts and stood out of that harbor on 21 February , to escort George Washington which was transporting President Woodrow Wilson from the Versailles Conference . Two days later she participated in ceremonies in Boston harbor celebrating the arrival of that ship .
Next , she put in for repairs at Norfolk , Virginia until 8 March , when she left for fleet exercises near Cuba . Following this , Harding left for New York , arriving there on 14 April . On 1 May , she departed as part of a group of destroyers acting as a guide for a flight of Navy Curtiss NC seaplanes across the Atlantic Ocean . Harding provided searchlight illumination by night during the first part of the flight ; NC @-@ 1 and NC @-@ 3 made forced landings near the Azores and Harding rendered assistance to NC @-@ 1 before it sank . NC @-@ 4 , the remaining seaplane , arrived at Ponta Delgada 20 May and as she took off for the last leg of her journey , Harding got underway to provide radio compass signals at sea . After the seaplanes landed at Plymouth , England , to complete the flight on 31 May 1919 , Harding visited Brest , France and the Azores before returning to Newport 18 June . For several months , Harding was based out of Newport and Norfolk on training exercises .
After the end of World War I , the U.S. Navy began to convert surplus ships to support its growing seaplane tender program . Several steamers and minelayers were selected in 1919 , but Harding was the only destroyer , because it was determined that she would require minimal modifications . Following this success , and as aircraft carrier designs advanced , more ships were designed specifically to support naval aviation . Fourteen Clemson @-@ class destroyers were converted to seaplane tenders in 1938 when it was determined that aircraft production was outpacing the development of these ships . During the conversion of Harding , her three .30 caliber machine guns were removed and her crew complement was reduced to 100 officers and enlisted men . Her torpedo tubes may also have been removed . On 13 December 1919 , she reported to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for conversion to a seaplane tender . She completed the conversion at Charleston Navy Yard and on 20 May 1920 , she sailed for duty at Pensacola Naval Air Station . Immediately after this , though , Harding was loaded with medical supplies from the American Red Cross and was ordered to Veracruz , Mexico , where an outbreak of bubonic plague necessitated serum and other supplies . She reached Veracruz on 9 June 1920 and unloaded her supplies . She then steamed for Pensacola , Florida , stopping at Tampico on the way , and arrived in Florida on 13 June .
At Pensacola , Harding was assigned to a seaplane pilot training program . She remained there until 4 August 1920 , after which she operated in the Caribbean area tending seaplanes until 23 February 1921 . She stopped briefly at Philadelphia before heading to Hampton Roads to support bombing tests on surrendered German ships , leaving Norfolk on 21 June . She was present during the bombing tests on SM U @-@ 117 and remained assigned to the tests until the sinking of the German battleship SMS Ostfriesland on 21 July 1921 . Harding was detached from this duty the next day .
Harding subsequently conducted training exercises out of Newport and other East Coast ports until 27 December 1921 , when she arrived at Charleston , South Carolina . Remaining there until 3 April 1922 , she sailed to Philadelphia where she decommissioned 1 July 1922 . Harding was then sold for scrap on 29 September 1936 , to Schiavone @-@ Bonomo Corporation in New York City .
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= Tamaraw =
The tamaraw or Mindoro dwarf buffalo ( Bubalus mindorensis ) is a small , hoofed mammal belonging to the family Bovidae . It is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the Philippines , and is the only endemic Philippine bovine . It is believed , however , to have once also thrived on the larger island of Luzon . The tamaraw was originally found all over Mindoro , from sea level up to the mountains ( 2000 meters above sea level ) , but because of human habitation , hunting , and logging , it is now restricted to only a few remote grassy plains and is now an endangered species .
Contrary to common belief and past classification , the tamaraw is not a subspecies of the local carabao , which is only slightly larger , or the common water buffalo . In contrast to the carabao , it has a number of distinguishing characteristics : it is slightly hairier , has light markings on its face , is not gregarious , and has shorter horns that are somewhat V @-@ shaped . It is the largest native terrestrial mammal in the country .
= = Anatomy and morphology = =
Bubalus mindorensis has the appearance of a typical member of its family . It has a compact , heavyset , bovine body , four legs that end in cloven hooves and a small , horned head at the end of a short neck . It is smaller and stockier compared to the water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ) . There is little sexual dimorphism in the species although males are reported to have thicker necks . The tamaraw has an average shoulder height of 100 – 105 cm ( 39 – 41 in ) . The length of the body is 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) while the tail adds a further 60 cm ( 24 in ) . Reported weights have ranged from 180 to 300 kg ( 400 to 660 lb ) .
Adults have a dark brown to grayish color and more hair than Bubalus bubalis . The limbs are short and stocky . White markings are seen in the hooves and the inner lower forelegs . These markings are similar to that of the anoa ( Bubalus depressicornis ) . The face is the same color as that of the body . Most of the members of the species also have a pair of gray @-@ white strips that begins from the inner corner of the eye to the horns . The nose and lips have black skin . The ears are 13 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) long from notch to tip with white markings on the insides .
Both sexes grows short black horns in a V @-@ shaped manner compared to C @-@ shaped horns of Bubalus bubalis . The horns have flat surfaces and are triangular at their base . Due to the regular rubbing , the tamaraw 's horns have a worn outer surface but with rough inner sides . The horns are reported to be 35 @.@ 5 to 51 centimetres ( 14 @.@ 0 to 20 @.@ 1 in ) long .
= = Distribution = =
The tamaraw was first documented in 1888 on the island of Mindoro . Before 1900 , most people avoided settling on Mindoro due to a virulent strain of malaria . However , as anti @-@ malarial medicine was developed , more people settled on the island . The increase in human activity has drastically reduced tamaraw population . By 1966 the tamaraw 's range was reduced to three areas : Mount Iglit , Mount Calavite and areas near the Sablayan Penal Settlement . By 2000 , their range was further reduced to only two areas : the Mounts Iglit – Baco National Park and Aruyan .
Initial estimates of the Bubalus mindorensis population on Mindoro was placed at around 10 @,@ 000 individuals in the early 1900s . Less than fifty years later in 1949 , the population had dwindled to around a thousand individuals . By 1953 , fewer than 250 animals were estimated to be alive . These population estimates continually grew smaller until the IUCN publication of their 1969 Red Data Book , where the tamaraw population was noted to be an alarmingly low 100 heads . This head count rose to 120 animals in 1975 . Current estimates place the wild tamaraw population from thirty to two hundred individuals .
= = Ecology and life history = =
As a rare , endemic mammal on a relatively secluded island , the ecology of the tamaraw is largely unknown . Individuals of the species are reclusive and shy away from humans . In addition , the small sizes of the species ' subpopulations , already spread thin throughout their fragmented range ( on 1986 , about 51 individuals are found in a 20 square kilometer area ) , make contact with any more than a solitary individual a rarity .
= = = Habitat = = =
Bubalus mindorensis prefers tropical highland forested areas . It is typically found in thick brush , near open @-@ canopied glades where it may graze and feed on grasses . Since human habitation and subsequent forest fragmentation of their home island of Mindoro , the habitat preferences of the tamaraw have somewhat expanded to lower @-@ altitude grassy plains . Within their mountainous environment , tamaraws will usually be found not far from sources of water . They have to live by water so they can drink . They live in moist areas such as , marshy areas , and grasslands .
= = = Trophic ecology = = =
The tamaraw is a grazer that feeds on grasses and young bamboo shoots although it is known to prefer cogon grass and wild sugarcane ( Saccharum spontaneum ) . They are naturally diurnal , feeding during the daytime hours ; however , daytime human activities have recently forced select B. mindorensis individuals to be nocturnal to avoid human contact .
= = = Life history = = =
The tamaraw is known to live for about 20 years , with an estimated lifespan of about 25 . The adult female tamaraw gives birth to one offspring after a gestation period of about 300 days . There is an interbirth interval of two years , although one female has been sighted with three juveniles . The calf stays for 2 – 4 years with its mother before becoming independent .
= = Behavioral ecology = =
Unlike the closely related water buffalo , B. mindorensis is a solitary creature . Adults of the species do not occur in herds or smaller packs and are often encountered alone . Only juveniles exhibit the typical bovine herding behavior and clan hierarchy often seen in water buffalo . Males and females are known to associate all year round but this interaction lasts only a few hours . It has been suggested that this solitary behavior is an adaptation to its forest environment . Adult males are often solitary and apparently aggressive while adult females can be alone , accompanied by a bull , or three young of different ages .
Similar to other bovines , the tamaraw wallows in mud pits . It has been suggested that this behavior is employed by the animals in order to avoid biting insects .
Another distinct behavior in B. mindorensis is their fierceness . There are reports concerning their fierceness when cornered although most are unsubstantiated . Threat posture used by the bovine involves lowering of the head , shifting its horns into a vertical position . This is accompanied with a lateral shaking of the head .
= = Evolutionary history = =
The presence of B. mindorensis on the island of Mindoro , coupled with the discovery of fossil bubalids in other islands around the archipelago indicates that the family was once widespread throughout the Philippines . In fact , fossil finds in the 20th century have shown that B. mindorensis were once found on the northern Philippine island of Luzon during the Pleistocene .
As a member of the family Bovidae , the tamaraw 's close affinity to the water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ) has been validated many times in the past . It was once considered a subspecies of B. bubalis ( as Anoa bubalis ) , Anoa bubalis mindorensis . Recent genetic analysis studies of the family members further strengthen this view .
= = Etymology and taxonomic history = =
The tamaraw was originally described as Anoa mindorensis by the French zoologist Pierre Marie Heude in 1888 . In 1958 , it was described as Anoa bubalis mindorensis , a subspecies of the then @-@ water buffalo species ( Anoa bubalis ) . A little over a decade after , the tamaraw was elevated to species status as Anoa mindorensis in 1969 .
Later research and analyses of relationships determined the genus Anoa to be a part of the genus Bubalus . The tamaraw 's scientific name was updated into its present form , Bubalus mindorensis ( sometimes referred to as Bubalus ( Bubalus ) mindorensis ) .
The name tamaraw has other variants like tamarau , tamarou and tamarao . It has been suggested that the term tamaraw came from tamadaw which is a probable alternative name for the banteng ( Bos javanicus ) .
= = Conservation = =
Being an entirely endemic and rare land mammal , Bubalus mindorensis stands as an extremely vulnerable species . Currently , it is classified as a critically endangered species and has been so since 2000 by the IUCN on its IUCN Red List of endangered species . Awareness of the conservation status of Bubalus mindorensis began way back in 1965 when it was classified as Status inadequately known by the IUCN . Enough data was gathered on the tamaraw population by 1986 , and the IUCN conservation monitoring center declared the species endangered . Throughout succeeding surveys conducted in 1988 , 1990 , 1994 and 1996 , the species remained listed on the Red List as endangered . The relisting of the species in 1996 fulfilled the IUCN criteria B1 + 2c and D1 . Criterion B1 indicated that the species ' range was less than 500 square kilometers and is known to exist in less than five independent locations . A noticed continuing decline in the population fulfilled sub @-@ criterion 2c , given the condition of the population 's sole habitat . Criterion D1 essentially required that a population be composed of less than 250 mature individuals ; individual counts of the B. mindorensis population at the time figured significantly lower than this . In 2000 , the tamaraw was relisted on the Red List under the more severe C1 criteria . This was due to estimates that the population would decline by 20 % in five years or within the timespan of two generations .
Many factors have contributed to the decline of the tamaraw population . Over the course of the century , the increase of the human population on Mindoro has exposed the island 's sole tamaraw population to severe anthropogenic pressures . In the 1930s , the introduction of non @-@ native cattle on the island caused a severe rinderpest epidemic among the tamaraw population then @-@ numbering in the thousands . Hunting of tamaraws for food and sustenance has also taken a toll on the species ' numbers . The most major factor threatening survival of B. mindorensis is habitat loss due to infrastructure development , logging and agriculture . These factors reduced the population of thousands during the early 1900s to less than 300 individuals in 2007 .
Due to the decline of the B. mindorensis population , various Philippine laws and organizations have been created towards the conservation of the species . In 1936 , Commonwealth Act No. 73 was enacted by the then @-@ Philippine Commonwealth . The act specifically prohibited killing , hunting and even merely wounding tamaraws , with an exception noted for self @-@ defense ( if one were to be attacked by an agitated individual ) or for scientific purposes . The penalties were harsh enough to include a hefty fine and imprisonment .
In 1979 , an executive order was signed creating a committee specifically geared towards the conservation of the tamaraw . The tamaraw was referred to as a " source of national pride " in the said E.O. The Tamaraw Conservation Project was also established in 1979 . The organization has successfully bred a tamaraw , nicknamed " Kali " , in captivity in 1999 . In 2001 , Republic Act 9147 , or the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act was enacted to protect the tamaraw and other endemic species from hunting and sale . During the 1970s , a gene pool was established to preserve the tamaraw 's numbers . However , the project was not successful as only one offspring , named " Kali " , was produced . As of 2011 , Kali is the only surviving animal in the gene pooling project . The project was also not improved as the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau shown that the tamaraws were already breeding in the wild . Cloning was not implemented for conservation as the Department of Environment and Natural Resource argued that such measures would diminish the genetic diversity of the species .
A small subpopulation of tamaraw has been found within the confines of the Mt . Iglit Game Refuge and Bird Sanctuary on the same island of Mindoro .
As of May 2007 , Bubalus mindorensis is on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species where it has been since the species was first put on the list on January 7 , 1975 . With the listing , CITES recognizes the species as critically endangered and threatened with extinction . Thus , international commercial trade in the species or any derivatives of which , such as the meat , horns or flesh is considered illegal . While commercial trade in the species is prohibited , exchange for non @-@ commercial reasons such as scientific research is allowed .
In October 2008 , the Department of Agriculture 's Philippine Carabao Center ( DA @-@ PCC ) director , Dr. Arnel del Barrio , officially reported that the tamaraw population had increased yearly by an average of 10 % from 2001 to 2008 . The April 2008 tamaraw expedition reports of the Tamaraw Conservation Program ( Mt . Iglit @-@ Baco National Park in Mindoro Occidental ) , by government and private entities , including Far Eastern University ( FEU ) students , revealed that " the tamaraw population was counted at 263 this year compared to only 175 heads in 2001 . The calving rate estimated by number of yearlings is considerably high ... ( which could mean that ) more than 55 % of the tamaraws are giving birth . In Mount Iglit @-@ Baco National Park , the official count of the animal was 263 in 2006 , 239 in 2007 and 263 in 2008 . " Mindoro 's indigenous Mangyan people have stopped slaughtering the animal for its blood .
The Haribon Foundation called the animal " Mindoro ’ s endangered treasure " and later " the Philippines ’ endangered flagship species " until 2005 . In the 1930s the tamaraw population declined due to rinderpest , a viral disease affecting cattle . In the 1960s and 1970s , hunters killed tamaraws for sport . More importantly , the rampant deforestation ( from 80 % habitat forest cover in the 1900s down to 8 % in 1988 ) in the area hastened the animal 's decline .
The Bangkok , Thailand International Union for the Conservation of Species ( IUCS ) has established a 280 @-@ hectare gene pool farm in Rizal , Mindoro Occidental . Also , extensive reforestation was implemented to hasten the tamaraws ' propagation . The animals are now found only in the mountainous portions of Mt . Iglit @-@ Baco National Park , Mt . Calavite , Mt . Halcon @-@ Eagle Pass , Mt . Aruyan @-@ Sablayan @-@ Mapalad Valley , and Mt . Bansud @-@ Bongabong @-@ Mansalay .
The 2002 Presidential Proclamation 273 set October as a " Special Month for the Conservation and Protection of the Tamaraw in Mindoro . " . At least 90 % belong to Mount Iglit @-@ Baco . To this day there are about 100 left . They 're becoming extinct because of humans .
= = Importance to humans = =
= = = Economical and commercial value = = =
While not as heavily exploited as other large , endangered mammals , the tamaraw population on Mindoro was subject to some harvesting pressure from subsistence hunters before conservation efforts were spurred towards the latter half of the 20th century . The IUCN has described this as still ongoing in their 2006 Red List report .
= = = In Philippine culture = = =
Though the national animal of the Philippines is the carabao , the tamaraw is also considered a national symbol of the Philippines . An image of the animal is found on the 1980 @-@ to @-@ early @-@ 1990 version of the one @-@ Peso coins .
In 2004 , Proclamation No. 692 was enacted to make October 1 a special working holiday in the province of Occidental Mindoro . In line with the Tamaraw Conservation Month , the proclamation aimed to remind the people of Mindoro the importance of the conservation of the tamaraw and its environment .
In the 1970s Toyota Motors , through the defunct local company Delta Motors , built the Tamaraw AUV ( Asian Utility Vehicle ) . Because of its ruggedness and simplicity of design , some examples still survive to this day , copied by multinational companies Ford , General Motors , and Nissan , through local subsidiary manufacturers to this day . Because it is an Asian Utility Vehicle , it shares its design with the Kijang , the Indonesian version . Automobile maker Toyota once held a franchise in the Philippine Basketball Association , naming its team the Toyota Tamaraws ( see below ) .
During the wake of the Asian utility popularity in the 1990s , Toyota Motors Philippines released an Asian Utility Vehicle ) called Tamaraw FX in the Philippines , an evolution of the Tamaraw AUV . It was widely patronized by taxi operators and was immediately turned into a staple mode of transportation much like a cross of the taxi and the jeepney . The FX eventually evolved into the Revo .
The tamaraw is also the mascot of the varsity teams of the Far Eastern University ( FEU Tamaraws ) in the University Athletic Association of the Philippines , and of the Toyota Tamaraws of the Philippine Basketball Association .
The Tamaraw Falls in Barangay Villaflor , Puerto Galera were also named after the bovine .
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= The Left Hand of Darkness =
The Left Hand of Darkness is a science fiction novel by Ursula K. Le Guin , published in 1969 . The novel became immensely popular ; in 1970 it won both the Hugo and Nebula Awards as the year 's " best novel " , and established Le Guin 's status as a major author of science fiction .
The novel follows the story of Genly Ai , a native of Terra , who is sent to the planet of Gethen as an envoy of the Ekumen , a loose confederation of planets . Ai 's mission is to persuade the nations of Gethen to join the Ekumen , but he is stymied by his lack of understanding of Gethenian culture . Individuals on Gethen are " ambisexual " , with no fixed gender identity . This fact has a strong influence on the culture of the planet , and creates a large barrier for Ai . Left Hand was among the first books published in the feminist science fiction genre and the most famous examination of androgyny in science fiction . A major theme of the novel is the effect of sex and gender on culture and society , in particular through the relationship between Ai and Estraven , a Gethenian politician who trusts and helps him . The novel touched off a feminist debate when it was first published , over depictions of the ambisexual Gethenians . The novel also addresses the theme of religion , by contrasting the two major faiths on Gethen , as well as exploring notions of loyalty and betrayal .
The novel is part of the Hainish Cycle , a series of novels and short stories by Le Guin set in the fictional Hainish universe , which she introduced in 1964 with " Dowry of the Angyar " . Among the Hainish novels , it was preceded in the sequence of writing by City of Illusions and followed by The Word for World is Forest , although Left Hand is the last work in the internal chronology of the Hainish cycle .
It has been reprinted more than 30 times , and received a highly positive response from reviewers . In addition to being voted the Hugo and Nebula awards by fans and writers , respectively , a 1975 poll in Locus magazine ranked Left Hand third behind Frank Herbert 's Dune and Arthur C. Clarke 's Childhood 's End . In 1987 , Locus ranked it second among science fiction novels after Dune . In an introduction to a critical anthology edited in 1987 , Harold Bloom stated ; " Le Guin , more than Tolkien , has raised fantasy into high literature , for our time " .
= = Background = =
Le Guin 's father Alfred Louis Kroeber was an anthropologist , and the experience that this gave Le Guin influenced all of her works . Many of the protagonists of Le Guin 's novels , such as The Left Hand of Darkness and Rocannon 's World are also anthropologists or social investigators of some kind . Le Guin uses the term Ekumen for her fictional alliance of worlds , a term which she got from her father , who derived it from the Greek Oikoumene to refer to Eurasian cultures that shared a common origin .
Le Guin 's interest in Taoism influenced much of her science fiction work . Douglas Barbour stated that the fiction of the Hainish Universe contain a theme of balance between light and darkness , a central theme of Taoism . She was also influenced by her early interest in mythology , and her exposure to cultural diversity as a child . Her protagonists are frequently interested in the cultures they are investigating , and are motivated to preserve them rather than conquer them . Authors that influenced Le Guin include Victor Hugo , Lev Tolstoy , Virginia Woolf , Italo Calvino , and Lao Tzu .
Le Guin identifies herself with feminism , and is interested in non @-@ violence and ecological awareness . She has participated in demonstrations against the Vietnam War and nuclear weapons . These sympathies can be seen in several of her works of fiction , including those in the Hainish universe . The novels of the Hainish universe frequently explore the effects of differing social and political systems , although she displays a preference for a " society that governs by consensus , a communal cooperation without external government . " Her fiction also frequently challenges accepted depictions of race and gender .
The original 1969 edition of The Left Hand of Darkness did not contain an introduction , but Le Guin wrote one for the 1976 edition after reflecting on her work . She states that science fiction is not extrapolative , because that is " too rationalist and simplistic . " Instead , she calls it a " thought experiment , " which presupposes some changes to the world , and explores their consequences . In this case , her thought experiment explores a society without men or women , where individuals share the biological and emotional makeup of both sexes . Le Guin states that the purpose of the " thought experiment " was not to predict the future , but to " describe reality , the present world . " She has also said that the genre in general allows exploration of the " real " world through metaphors and complex stories , and that science fiction can use imaginary situations to comment on human behaviors and relationships .
= = Setting = =
The Left Hand of Darkness is set in the fictional Hainish universe , which Le Guin introduced in her first novel Rocannon 's World , published in 1966 . In this alternative history , human beings did not evolve on earth , but on Hain . The people of Hain colonized many neighboring planetary systems , including Terra ( Earth ) and Gethen , possibly a million years before the setting of the novels . Some of the groups that " seeded " each planet were the subjects of genetic experiments , including on Gethen . The planets subsequently lost contact with each other , for reasons that Le Guin does not explain . Le Guin does not narrate the entire history of the Hainish universe at once , instead letting readers piece it together from various works . Although it was the last to be written , The Dispossessed lies earliest in the internal chronology , while Left Hand is last .
The novels and other fictional works set in the Hainish universe recount the efforts to re @-@ establish a galactic civilization . Explorers from Hain as well as other planets use interstellar ships traveling nearly as fast as light . These take years to travel between planetary systems , although the journey is shortened for the travelers due to relativistic time dilation , as well as through instantaneous interstellar communication using the ansible , introduced in The Dispossessed . This galactic civilization is known as the " League of All Worlds " in works set earlier in the chronology of the series , and has been reconstructed as the " Ekumen " by the time the events in The Left Hand of Darkness take place . During the events of Left Hand , the Ekumen is a union of 83 worlds , with some common laws . At least two " thought experiments " are used in each novel . The first is the idea that all humanoid species had a common origin ; they are all depicted as descendents of the original Hainish colonizers . The second idea is unique to each novel .
The Left Hand of Darkness takes place many centuries in the future – no date is given in the book itself . Reviewers have suggested the year 4870 AD , based on extrapolation of events in other works , and commentary on her writing by Le Guin . The protagonist of the novel , the envoy Genly Ai , is on a planet called Winter ( " Gethen " in the language of its own people ) to convince the citizens to join the Ekumen . Winter is , as its name indicates , a planet that is always cold .
The inhabitants of Gethen are sequentially hermaphroditic humans ; for twenty @-@ four days ( somer ) of each twenty @-@ six @-@ day lunar cycle , they are sexually latent androgynes . They only adopt sexual attributes once a month , during a period of sexual receptiveness and high fertility , called kemmer . During kemmer they become sexually male or female , with no predisposition towards either , although which sex they adopt can depend on context and relationships . Throughout the novel Gethenians are described as " he " , whatever their role in kemmer . This absence of fixed gender characteristics led Le Guin to portray Gethen as a society without war , and also without sexuality as a continuous factor in social relationships . On Gethen , every individual takes part in the " burden and privilege " of raising children , and rape and seduction are virtually absent .
= = Plot summary = =
The protagonist of the novel is Genly Ai , a male Terran native , who is sent to invite Gethen to join the Ekumen , the coalition of humanoid worlds . Ai travels to Gethen on a ship which remains in orbit around the planet with Ai 's companions , who are in stasis ; Ai himself is sent to the planet 's surface alone , as the " first mobile . " Like all envoys of the Ekumen , he can " mindspeak " – a form of quasi @-@ telepathic speech , which Gethenians are capable of , but for which they have lost the ability . He lands in the Gethenian kingdom of Karhide , and spends two years attempting to persuade the members of its government of the value of joining the Ekumen . Karhide is one of two major nations on Gethen , the other being Orgoreyn .
The novel begins the day before an audience that Ai has obtained with Argaven Harge , the king of Karhide . Ai manages this through the help of Estraven , the prime minister , who seems to believe in Ai 's mission ; however , the night before the audience , Estraven tells Ai that he can no longer support Ai 's cause with the king . Ai begins to doubt Estraven 's loyalty because of his strange mannerisms , which Ai finds effeminate and ambiguous . The behavior of people in Karhide is dictated by shifgrethor , an intricate set of unspoken social rules and formal courtesy , which Ai does not understand , contributing to his distrust of Estraven . The next day , as he prepares to meet the King , Ai learns that Estraven has been accused of treason , and exiled from the country . The pretext for Estraven 's exile was his handling of a border dispute with the neighboring country of Orgoreyn , in which Estraven was seen as being too conciliatory . Ai meets with the king , who rejects his offer to join the Ekumen . Discouraged , Ai decides to travel through Karhide , as the spring has just begun , rendering the interior of the country accessible .
Ai travels to a fastness , a dwelling of people of the Handarrata , one of two major Gethenian religions . He pays the fastness for a foretelling , an art practiced to prove the uselessness of knowing the right answer to the wrong question . Ai decides to pursue his mission in Orgoreyn . He asks if Gethen / Winter will be a member of the Ekumen in five years , expecting that the foretellers will give him an ambiguous response ; however , he is answered " yes " . This leads him to muse that the Gethenians have " trained hunch to run in harness . " After several months of travelling through Karhide , Ai decides to pursue his mission in Orgoreyn , to which he has received an invitation .
Ai reaches the Orgota capital of Mishnory , where he finds that the Orgota politicians are initially far more direct with him . He is given comfortable quarters , and is allowed to present his invitation to the council that rules Orgoreyn . Three members of the council , Shusgis , Obsle , and Yegey , are particularly supportive of him . These three are members of an " Open Trade " faction , which wants to end the conflict with Karhide . Estraven , who was banished from Karhide , is found working with these council members , and tells Ai that he was responsible for Ai 's invitation to Orgoreyn . Despite the support , Ai feels uneasy ; Estraven warns him not to trust the Orgota leaders , and he hears rumors of the " Sarf , " or secret police , that truly control Orgoreyn . He ignores both his feeling and the warning , and is once again blindsided ; he is arrested unexpectedly one night , interrogated , and then sent to a far @-@ northern work camp to meet his death by cold , labor , and sterilizing drugs .
To Ai 's great surprise , Estraven — whom Ai still distrusts — goes to great lengths to save him . Estraven poses as a prison guard and breaks Ai out of the farm , using his training with the Handarrata to induce dothe , or berserker strength to aid him in the process . Estraven spends the last of his money on supplies , and the pair begin an 80 @-@ day trek across the Gobrin ice sheet back to Karhide , because Estraven believes that the very appearance of Ai in Karhide will force its acceptance of the Ekumen treaty . Over the journey Ai and Estraven learn to trust and accept one another 's differences . Ai is eventually successful in teaching Estraven mindspeech ; Estraven hears Ai speaking in his mind with the voice of his dead sibling Arek , demonstrating the close connection that the two have developed . When they reach Karhide , Estraven tries to return to the land border with Orgoreyn , because he is still exiled from Karhide , but is killed by border guards , who capture Ai . As Estraven predicted , Ai 's presence in Karhide , and the fallout of Estraven 's death , triggers the collapse of governments in both Karhide and Orgoreyn . Soon after , Karhide agrees to join the Ekumen , followed shortly by Orgoreyn , completing Ai 's mission .
= = Primary characters = =
= = = Genly Ai = = =
Genly Ai is the protagonist of the novel ; a male native of Terra , or Earth , who is sent to Gethen by the Ekumen as a " first mobile " or envoy . He is called " Genry " by the Karhiders , who have trouble pronouncing the letter " L. " He is described as rather taller and darker than the average Gethenian . Although curious and sensitive to Gethenian culture in many ways , he struggles at first to trust the ambisexual Gethenians . His own masculine mannerisms , learned on Terra , also prove to be a barrier to communication . At the beginning of the book , he has been on Gethen for one year , trying to gain an audience with the king , and persuade the Karhidish government to believe his story . He arrives equipped with basic information about the language and culture from a team of investigators who had come before him .
In Karhide , the king is reluctant to accept his diplomatic mission . In Orgoreyn , Ai is seemingly accepted more easily by the political leaders , yet Ai is arrested , stripped of his clothes , drugged , and sent to a work camp . Rescued by Estraven , the deposed Prime Minister of Karhide , Genly realizes that cultural differences – specifically shifgrethor , gender roles and Gethenian sexuality – had kept him from understanding their relationship previously . During their 81 @-@ day journey across the frozen land to return to Karhide , Ai learns to understand and love Estraven .
= = = Estraven = = =
Therem Harth rem ir Estraven is a Gethenian from the Domain of Estre in Kerm Land , at the southern end of the Karhidish half of the continent . He is the Prime Minister of Karhide at the very beginning of the novel , until he is exiled from Karhide after attempting to assuage the Sinnoth Valley dispute with Orgoreyn . Estraven is one of the few Gethenians who believes Ai , and attempts to help him from the beginning . However , Ai 's lack of understanding of shifgrethor leads to severe misunderstanding between them . Estraven is said to have made a taboo kemmering vow to his brother , Arek Harth rem ir Estraven , while they were both young . Convention required that they separated after they had produced a child together ; however , because of the first vow , the vow he makes with Ashe Foreth , which also is broken before the events in Left Hand , is called a " false vow , a second vow " . In contrast to Ai , Estraven is shown with both stereotypically male and female qualities , and is used to demonstrate that they are both necessary for survival .
= = = Argaven = = =
Argaven Harge XV is the king of Karhide during the events of the novel . He is described both by his subjects and by Estraven as being " mad . " He has sired seven children , but has yet to bear " an heir of the body , king son " . During the events of the novel he becomes pregnant but loses the child before it is born , triggering speculation as to which of his sired children will be named his heir . His behavior towards Ai is consistently paranoid ; although he grants Ai an audience , he refuses to believe his story , and declines the offer to join the Ekumen . The tenure of his prime ministers tends to be short , with both Estraven and Tibe rising and falling from power during the two Gethenian years that the novel spans . Argaven eventually agrees to join the Ekumen due to the political fallout of Estraven 's death and Ai 's escape from Orgoreyn .
= = = Tibe = = =
Pemmer Harge rem ir Tibe is Argaven Harge 's cousin . Tibe becomes the prime minister of Karhide when Estraven is exiled at the beginning of the novel , and becomes the regent for a brief while when Argaven is pregnant . In contrast to Estraven , he seems intent on starting a war with Orgoreyn over the Sinoth valley dispute ; in addition to taking aggressive actions at the border , he regularly makes belligerent speeches on the radio . He is strongly opposed to Ai 's mission . He orders Estraven to be killed at the border at the end of the novel , as a last act of defiance , knowing that Estraven and Ai 's presence in Karhide means his own downfall ; he resigns immediately after Estraven 's death .
= = = Obsle , Yegey , and Shusgis = = =
Obsle , Yegey , and Shusgis are Commensals , three of the thirty @-@ three councilmen that rule Orgoreyn . Obsle and Yegey are members of the " Open Trade " faction , who wish to normalize relations with Karhide . Obsle is the commensal of the Sekeve District , and was once the head of the Orgota Naval Trade Commission in Erhenrang , where he became acquainted with Estraven . Estraven describes him as the nearest thing to an honest person among the politicians of Orgoreyn . Yegey is the commensal who first finds Estraven during his exile , and who gives Estraven a job and a place to live in Mishnory . Shusgis is the commensal who hosts Genly Ai after Ai 's arrival in Mishnory , and is a member of the opposing faction , which supports the Sarf , the Orgota secret police . Although Obsle and Yegey support Ai 's mission , they see him more as a means of increasing their own influence within the council ; thus they eventually betray him to the Sarf , in order to save themselves . Their Open Trade faction takes control of the council after Ai 's presence in Karhide becomes known at the end of the novel .
= = Reception = =
The Left Hand of Darkness received overwhelmingly positive critical responses when it was published . It won both the Nebula Award , given by the Science Fiction Writers of America , and the Hugo Award , determined by science fiction fans . In 1987 , Locus ranked it number two among " All @-@ Time Best SF Novels " , based on a poll of subscribers . By 2014 , the novel had sold more than a million copies in English alone . The Paris Review stated that " No single work did more to upend the genre 's conventions than The Left Hand of Darkness . "
Algis Budrys praised the novel as " a narrative so fully realized , so compellingly told , so masterfully executed . " He found the book " a novel written by a magnificent writer , a totally compelling tale of human peril and striving under circumstances in which human love , and a number of other human qualities , can be depicted in a fresh context . " Budrys would later describe Left Hand as an influence upon his own writing . Darko Suvin , one of the first academics to study science fiction , wrote that Left Hand was the " most memorable novel of the year . "
Harold Bloom listed The Left Hand of Darkness in The Western Canon ( 1994 ) as one of the books in his conception of artistic works that been important and influential in influencing Western culture. saying that " Le Guin , more than Tolkien , has raised fantasy into high literature , for our time " . Bloom said in 1987 that Left Hand was Le Guin 's " finest work to date , " and that critics had generally undervalued the book . Charlote Spivack stated that Left Hand established Le Guin 's status as a major science @-@ fiction writer .
Suzanne Reid wrote that at the time the novel was written , Le Guin 's ideas of androgyny were unique not only to science fiction , but to literature in general . Donna White stated that Left Hand was one of the seminal works of science fiction , as important as Frankenstein , by Mary Shelley , which is often described as the very first science fiction novel . Left Hand has been a focus of literary critique of Le Guin 's work , along with her Earthsea fiction and utopian fiction . The novel was also a personal milestone for Le Guin , with critics calling it her " first contribution to feminism . " It was one of her most popular books for many years after its publication .
The novel was at the center of a feminist debate when it was published in 1969 . Alexei Panshin objected to the use of masculine " he / him / his " gender pronouns to describes its androgynous characters . Other feminists maintained that the novel did not go far enough in its exploration of gender . Criticism was also directed at the portrayal of androgynous characters in the " masculine " roles of politicians and statesmen but not in family roles . Sarah LeFanu , for example , wrote that Le Guin turned her back on on opportunity for experimentation . She stated that " these male heroes with their crises of identity , caught in the stranglehold of liberal individualism , act as a dead weight at the center of the novel . " Le Guin , who identifies as a feminist , responded to these criticisms in her essay " Is Gender Necessary ? " as well as by switching masculine pronouns for feminine ones in a later reprinting of Winter 's King , an unconnected short story set on Gethen . In her responses , Le Guin admitted to failing to depict androgynes in stereotypically feminine roles , but said that she considered and decided against inventing gender @-@ neutral pronouns , because they would mangle the language of the novel .
= = Themes = =
= = = Hainish universe themes = = =
Le Guin 's works set in the Hainish universe explore the idea of human expansion , similar to the future history novels of other science @-@ fiction authors such as Isaac Asimov . These novels , such as The Dispossessed , Left Hand , and The Word for World is Forest also frequently explore the effects of differing social and political systems . Le Guin believed that contemporary society suffered from a high degree of alienation and division , and her depictions of encounters between races , such as in The Left Hand of Darkness sought to explore the possibility of an " improved mode of human relationships , " based on " integration and integrity . " The Left Hand of Darkness explores this theme through the relationship between Genly Ai and Estraven ; Ai initially distrusts Estraven , but eventually comes to love and trust him . Le Guin 's later Hainish novels also challenge contemporary ideas about gender , ethnic differences , the value of ownership , and human beings ' relationship to the natural world .
= = = Sex and gender = = =
A prominent theme in the novel are social relations in a society where gender is irrelevant ; in Le Guin 's words , she " eliminated gender , to find out what was left . " In her 1976 essay " Is Gender necessary ? " Le Guin wrote that the theme of gender was only secondary to the novel 's primary theme of loyalty and betrayal . However , Le Guin revisited this essay in 1988 , and stated that gender was actually central to the novel ; her earlier essay had described gender as a peripheral theme because of the defensiveness she felt over using masculine pronouns for her characters .
The novel also follows changes in the character of Genly Ai , whose behavior shifts away from " masculine " behavior , and grows more androgynous over the course of the novel . He becomes more patient and caring , and less rigidly rationalist . Ai struggles to form a bond with Estraven through much of the novel , and finally breaks down the barrier between them during their journey on the ice , when he recognizes and accepts Estraven 's dual sexuality . Their understanding of each other 's sexuality helps them achieve a more trusting relationship . The new intimacy they share is shown when Ai teaches Estraven to mindspeak , and Estraven hears Ai speaking with the voice of Estraven 's dead sibling Arek .
Feminist theorists criticized the novel for what they saw as a homophobic depiction of the relationship between Estraven and Ai . Both are presented as superficially masculine throughout the novel , but they never physically explore the attraction between them . Estraven 's death at the end was seen as giving the message that " death is the price that must be paid for forbidden love . " In a 1986 essay , Le Guin acknowledged and apologized for the fact that Left Hand had presented heterosexuality as the norm on Gethen .
The androgynous nature of the inhabitants of Gethen is used to examine gender relations in human society . On Gethen , the permanently male Genly Ai is an oddity , and is seen as a " pervert " by the natives ; according to reviewers , this is Le Guin 's way of gently critiquing masculinity . Additionally , Le Guin seems to suggest that the absence of gender divisions leads to a society without the constriction of gender roles . The Gethenians are also not inclined to go to war , which reviewers have linked to their lack of sexual aggressiveness , derived from their ambisexuality . Harold Bloom states that " Androgyny is clearly neither a political nor a sexual ideal " in the book , but that " ... ambisexuality is a more imaginative condition than our bisexuality . ... the Gethenians know more than either men or women . " Bloom adds that this is the major difference between Estraven and Ai , and allows Estraven the freedom to carry out actions that Ai cannot ; Estraven " is better able to love , and freed therefore to sacrifice . "
= = = Religion = = =
The book features two major religions : the Handdara , an informal system reminiscent of Taoism and Buddhism , and the Yomeshta or Meshe 's cult , a close @-@ to @-@ monotheistic religion based on the idea of absolute knowledge of the entirety of time attained in one visionary instant by Meshe , who was originally a Foreteller of the Handdara , when attempting to answer the question : " What is the meaning of life ? " The Handdara is the more ancient , and dominant in Karhide , while Yomesh is the official religion in Orgoreyn . The differences between them underlie political distinctions between the countries and cultural distinctions between their inhabitants . Estraven is revealed to be an adept of the Handdara .
Le Guin 's interest in Taoism influenced much of her science fiction work . Douglas Barbour said that the fiction of the Hainish Universe contain a theme of balance between light and darkness , a central theme of Taoism . The title of Left Hand derives from the first line of a lay traditional to the fictional planet of Gethen ;
Light is the left hand of darkness , and darkness the right hand of light . Two are one , life and death , lying together like lovers in kemmer , like hands joined together , like the end and the way .
Suzanne Reid states that this presentation of light and dark was in strong contrast to many western cultural assumptions , which believe in strongly contrasted opposites . She states that Le Guin 's characters have a tendency to adapt to the rhythms of nature rather than trying to conquer them , an attitude which can also be traced to Taoism . The Handarrata represent the Taoist sense of unity ; believers try to find insight by reaching the " untrance " , a balance between knowing and unknowing , and focusing and unfocusing .
The Yomesh cult is the official religion of Orgoreyn , and worships light . Critics such as David Lake have found parallels between the Yomesh cult and Christianity , such as the presence of saints and angels , and the use of a dating system based on the death of the prophet . Le Guin portrays the Yomesh religion as influencing the Orgota society , which Lake interprets as a critique of the influence of Christianity upon Western society . In comparison to the religion of Karhide , the Yomesh religion focuses more on enlightenment and positive , obvious statements . Le Guin suggests that this focus on positives leads to the Orgota being not entirely honest , and that a balance between enlightenment and darkness is necessary for truth .
= = = Loyalty and betrayal = = =
Loyalty , fidelity , and betrayal are significant themes in the book , explored against the background of both planetary and interplanetary relations . Genly Ai is sent to Gethen as an envoy of the Ekumen , whose mission is to convince the various Gethenian nations that their identities will not be destroyed when they integrate with the Ekumen . At the same time , the planetary conflict between Karhide and Orgoreyn is shown as increasing nationalism , making it hard for those in each country to view themselves as citizens of the planet .
This conflict is demonstrated by the varying loyalties of the main characters . Genly Ai tells Argaven after Estraven 's death that Estraven served mankind as a whole , just as Ai did . During the border dispute with Orgoreyn , Estraven tries to end the dispute by moving Karhidish farmers out of the disputed territory . Estraven believes that by preventing war he was saving Karhidish lives and being loyal to his country , while King Argaven sees it as a betrayal . At the end of the novel Ai calls his ship down to formalize Gethen 's joining the Ekumen , and feels conflicted while doing so because he had promised Estraven that he would clear Estraven 's name before calling his ship down . This demonstrates Le Guin 's portrayal of loyalty and betrayal as complementary rather than contradictory , because in joining Gethen with the Ekumen Ai was fulfilling the larger purpose that he shared with Estraven . Donna White wrote that many of Le Guin 's novels depict a struggle between personal loyalties and public duties , best exemplified in Left Hand , where Ai is bound by a personal bond to Estraven , but must subordinate that to his mission for the Ekumen and humanity .
The theme of loyalty and trust is related to the novel 's other major theme of gender . Ai has considerable difficulty in completing his mission because of his prejudice against the ambisexual Gethenians and his inability to establish a personal bond with them . Ai 's preconceived ideas of how men should behave prevents him from trusting Estraven when the two meet ; Ai labels Estraven " womanly " and distrusts him because Estraven exhibits both male and female characteristics . Estraven also faces difficulties communicating with Ai , who does not understand shifgrethor , the Gethenians ' indirect way of giving and receiving advice . A related theme that runs through Le Guin 's work is that of being rooted or rootless in society , explored through the experiences of lone individuals on alien planets .
= = = Shifgrethor and communication = = =
Shifgrethor is a fictional concept in the Hainish universe , first introduced in The Left Hand of Darkness . It is first mentioned by Genly Ai , when he thinks to himself " ... shifgrethor — prestige , face , place , the pride @-@ relationship , the untranslatable and all @-@ important principle of social authority in Karhide and all civilizations of Gethen . " It derives from an old Gethenian word for shadow . George Slusser describes shifgrethor as " this status is not rank , but its opposite , the ability to maintain equality in any relationship , and to do so by respecting the person of the other . " According to University of West Georgia Professor Carrie B. McWhorter , shifgrethor can be defined simply as " a sense of honor and respect that provides the Gethenians with a way to save face in a time of crisis . "
Ai initially refuses to see a connection between his sexuality and his mode of consciousness , preventing from truly understanding the Gethenians ; thus he is unable to persuade them of the importance of his mission . Ai 's failure to understand shifgrethor and to trust Estraven 's motives leads him to misunderstand much of the advice that Estraven gives him . As Ai 's relationship to Estraven changes , their communication also changes ; they are both more willing to acknowledge mistakes , and make fewer assertions . Eventually , the two are able to converse directly with mindspeech , but only after Ai is able to understand Estraven 's motivations , and no longer requires direct communication .
= = Style and structure = =
The novel is framed as part of the report that Ai sends back to the Ekumen after his time on Gethen , and as such , suggests that Ai is selecting and ordering the material . Ai narrates ten chapters in the first person ; the rest are made up of extracts from Estraven 's personal diary and ethnological reports from an earlier observer from the Ekumen , interspersed with Gethenian myths and legends . The novel begins with the following statement from Ai , explaining the need for multiple voices in the novel :
I 'll make my report as if I told a story , for I was taught as a child on my homeworld that Truth is a matter of the imagination . The soundest fact may fail or prevail in the style of its telling : like that singular organic jewel of our seas , which grows brighter as one woman wears it and , worn by another , dulls and goes to dust . Facts are no more solid , coherent , round , and real , than pearls are . But both are sensitive .
The story is not all mine , nor told by me alone . Indeed I am not sure whose story it is ; you can judge better . But it is all one , and if at moments the facts seem to alter with an altered voice , why then you can choose the fact that you like the best ; yet none of them are false , and it is all one story .
The myths and legends serve to explain specific features about Gethenian culture , as well as larger philosophical aspects of society . Many of the tales used in the novel immediately precede chapters describing Ai 's experience with a similar situation . For instance , a story about the dangers of foretelling is presented before Ai 's own experience witnessing a foretelling . Other stories include a discussion of the legend of the " place inside the storm " ; another discusses the roots of the Yomeshta cult ; a third is an ancient Orgota creation myth ; a fourth is a story of one of Estraven 's ancestors , which discusses what a traitor is . The presence of myths and legends has also been cited by reviewers who state that Le Guin 's work , particularly Left Hand , is similar to allegory in many ways . These include the presence of a guide ( Estraven ) for the protagonist ( Ai ) , and the use of myths and legends to provide a backdrop for the story .
The heterogeneous structure of the novel has been described as " distinctly post @-@ modern " , and was unusual for the time of its publication , in marked contrast to ( primarily male @-@ authored ) traditional science fiction , which was straightforward and linear . In 1999 , literary scholar Donna White wrote that the unorthodox structure of the novel made it initially confusing to reviewers , before it was interpreted as an attempt to follow the trajectory of Ai 's changing views . Also in contrast to what was typical for male authors of the period , Le Guin narrated the action in the novel through the personal relationships she depicted .
Ai 's first @-@ person narration reflects his slowly developing view , and the reader 's knowledge and understanding of the Gethens evolves with Ai 's awareness . He begins in naivety , gradually discovering his profound errors in judgement . In this sense , the novel can be thought of as a Bildungsroman , or coming of age story . Since the novel is presented as Ai 's journey of transformation , Ai 's position as the narrator increases the credibility of the story . The narration is complemented by her writing style , described by a reviewer as " precise , dialectical – always evocative in its restrained pathos " which is " exquisitely fitted to her powers of invention . "
= = Adaptations = =
In December 2004 , Phobos Entertainment acquired media rights to the novel and announced plans for a feature film and video game based on it . In 2013 , the Portland Playhouse and Hand2Mouth Theatre produced a stage adaptation of The Left Hand of Darkness in Portland , Oregon . On 12 April and 19 April 2015 , BBC Radio 4 broadcast a two @-@ part adaptation of the novel , starring Kobna Holdbrook @-@ Smith as Genly Ai , Lesley Sharp as Estraven , Toby Jones as Argaven , Ruth Gemmell as Ashe , Louise Brealey as Tibe and Gaum , Stephen Critchlow as Shusgis , and David Acton as Obsle . The radio drama was adapted by Judith Adams and directed by Allegra McIlroy . The adaptation was created and aired as part of a thematic month centered on the life and works of Ursula Le Guin , in honor of her 85th birthday .
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= Hollywood ( Madonna song ) =
" Hollywood " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . The song was written and produced by Madonna and Mirwais Ahmadzaï for her ninth studio album , American Life ( 2003 ) . On July 14 , 2003 , it was released as the second single from the album by Maverick Records . It later appeared on the greatest hits album , Celebration ( 2009 ) . " Hollywood " is a dance @-@ pop and folk rock song that lyrically discusses American culture and greed , focusing on Hollywood , California , as a place of pop stars and illusory dreams . Madonna 's vocals in the song was noted as that of a little @-@ girl 's ; during the song she also raps , with the repeated phrase " Push the button " . Ahmadzaï did the main programming for the track and kept the track as simple as possible , without using too many instruments .
Several remixes of " Hollywood " , done by DJs such as Jacques Lu Cont , The Micronauts , Paul Oakenfold , Deepsky and Victor Calderone , were included on physical releases of the single around the world . Music critics applauded the song 's catchiness but criticized its lyrics . The song topped Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Songs and Hot Dance Singles Sales component charts . The debut of the " Hollywood " remixes on the Dance Singles Sales chart gave Madonna her longest stretch of chart @-@ topping titles on this chart , " Hollywood " being her sixth in a row . It also reached the top ten in Canada , Finland , Italy and reached number two in the United Kingdom .
An accompanying music video , directed by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , portrays Madonna highlighting the highs and lows of Hollywood . After the video was released , French photographer Guy Bourdin 's son filed a federal lawsuit that accused Madonna of ripping off the work of his father , showing sequences of the video to be similar to his father 's photographs taken in 1980s . " Hollywood " was first performed in an acoustic version along with " American Life " and " Mother and Father " on a promotional tour for the album . In August 2003 , Madonna opened the MTV Video Music Awards performing a medley of " Like a Virgin " and " Hollywood " with Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera and Missy Elliott . During the performance , Madonna kissed Spears and Aguilera on the lips , generating strong reactions from the media . " Hollywood " was later used as a dancers ' interlude on the 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour .
= = Background and writing = =
When Madonna started working on her ninth studio album , the cultural mood of America was bleak and that of paranoia after the September 11 attacks . There was discontent and fear all around as the terrorism and hatred took people by surprise , as they started questioning the feasibility of the American Dream . While developing the songs for American Life with producer Mirwais Ahmadzaï , Madonna interrogated and pondered upon those values . The confusion , disorientation and the anger they created seeped into the making of each and every song , including " Hollywood " . She later spoke about Ahmadzaï 's downbeat existentialism and the long discussions they had about this , and society 's obsession with fame and fortune . In an interview with Q , in April 2003 , she described it as the allure of the beautiful life in " Hollywood " . Explaining in detail ,
" I 've had 20 years of fame and fortune , and I feel that I have a right to an opinion on what it is and what it isn 't . All everyone is obsessed about at the moment is being a celebrity . I 'm saying that 's bullshit and who knows better than me ? Before it happens you have all kinds of notions about how wonderful celebrity is and how much joy it 's going to bring you . Then you arrive ... Look like this you 're gonna be happy . Drive this car you 're gonna be popular . Wear these clothes and people are gonna wanna fuck you . It 's a very powerful illusion and people are caught up in it , including myself . Or I was . "
In the VH1 special Madonna Speaks , the artist further clarified that the theme behind " Hollywood " , as well as " American Life " And " I 'm So Stupid " from the album , was about her " wanting to shout from the rooftops that we have all been living in a dream . I have been living in a dream — and you 're all living in a dream and we have to wake up to reality . " Madonna 's first single from American Life — the title track — became the lowest charting first single from a Madonna album since her debut , reaching a peak of number 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Warner Bros. Records hastily wanted to save the album from dropping off the charts , and decided to release " Hollywood " , believing the song to have commercial success potential .
= = Recording = =
" Hollywood " was produced by Madonna , along with Ahmadzaï . The recording sessions for American Life started in late 2001 , then was put on hold as Madonna filmed Swept Away in Malta and starred in the West End play Up for Grabs . She returned to the Olympic Recording Studios in late 2002 and finished off the sessions . Initially , Madonna was not satisfied with the original version of " Hollywood " recorded , so she developed an alternate melody for it . The instruments used on " Hollywood " are similar to the ones used on the other songs from American Life . The mixing for the track was done by Mark " Spike " Stent at the Westlake Recording Studios at West Hollywood , California , while Tim Young did the mastering of the song at Metropolis Studios in London . Ahmadzaï played the guitars , and also did the necessary programming . He used a drum kit and percussion from an E @-@ mu Emulator and also added extra drum sounds to give the song an old , disco vibe . Wanting to have a loud bass synth sound , Ahmadzaï used a Nord Lead synthesizer with lot of filtering manipulations . But he faced problems with it , so he used a Yamaha O2R mixer . He did not want " Hollywood " to sound like the music being played at the nightclubs , so he recorded Madonna 's vocals with heavy compression in her headphones . Two machines were used for the vocal editing in " Hollywood " . Madonna preferred the Antares Auto @-@ Tune plug in , while Ahmadzaï chose an AMS pitch shifter . Madonna wanted Auto @-@ Tune because she wanted " Hollywood " to have a more dance @-@ like feel to it , although Ahmadzaï was against it . Describing the recording of the vocals , Ahmadzaï said :
" We used mainly analog compressors on the vocals , sometimes very cheap or mid @-@ budget stuff , recorded with a Sony G800 tube mic , a Neve 8081 preamp and an LA @-@ 2A compressor / limiter . But everything is about the setting ... We experiment a lot with vocal sounds . For example , the pitch @-@ down vocal at the end was initially much longer . The mix of this one was very hard — like almost all tracks — because there was so much stuff going on . This is why maybe the final version is so simple . "
= = Composition = =
" Hollywood " is a " bouncy folk @-@ rock tune " , as noted by James Hannaham of Spin , while Ken Micallef of Electronic Musician described it as " a clubby disco beat underpins a mammoth bass line with freaky percussion , queasy arcing tones and madly treated vocals . " It also contains house beats with elements of space age and retro music , as well as synthpop . Following the sound of twittering birds , the song opens with a four @-@ chord sequence played on a Martin D @-@ 28 acoustic guitar ; the riff was compared to songs of the Red Hot Chili Peppers by Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna . It is followed by the sound of drums and synthesizers until after a minute , when the arrangement is pulled out , leaving just Madonna 's vocals and the acoustic guitar accompaniment . Madonna 's voice glides over pop beats throughout the song . During the final sequence , Madonna 's singing is slowly morphed lower in pitch into a distorted , robotic voice and she raps , with the repeated phrase " Push the button " . According to the sheet music published at Sheetmusicplus.com , " Hollywood " is written in common time with a moderately fast tempo of 126 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C major with Madonna 's voice spanning from B3 to C5 . An abrupt shift of key takes place at about three minutes into the song , from B minor to C ♯ minor , which according to Rooksby was utilized to give the song 's closing choruses a different treatment . The song follows a basic sequence of Bm – D – A – G – Em as its chord progression .
Lyrically , it discusses American culture and greed , focusing on Hollywood as a place of pop stars and illusory dreams . The bridge opens with Madonna saying , " Music stations always play the same songs / I 'm bored with the concept of right and wrong " . Contemporary author Ben Shapiro noted the verse " seems to be Madonna 's credo . Her purposeful degradation of morality has led to monumental success for her @-@ and created a monumentally bad influence for her teenage fans . " Further , Madonna questions the Hollywood experience , singing , " How could it hurt you when it looked so good ? " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian noted Madonna 's vocals in the song are " high @-@ pitched [ to sound like a ] little @-@ girl " , with the intention of " [ underlying ] the notion of innocence lost " .
= = Remixes = =
Several remixes of " Hollywood " , done by DJs such as Jacques Lu Cont , The Micronauts , Paul Oakenfold , Deepsky and Victor Calderone , were included on physical releases of the single around the world . In August 2003 , the song was remixed with " Into the Groove " and performed with Missy Elliott under the title " Into the Hollywood Groove " as part of a promotional campaign for clothing retailer , GAP . Copies of the promotional CD were given to customers and were not available for individual purchase . An extended version , " The Passengerz Mix " , was also included on the remix album Remixed & Revisited ( 2003 ) . A promotional video for the remix was also shot . Rob Walker of Slate considered the video " interesting because Madonna has always been praised as much for her ability to market herself as for her actual talent as a singer and performer " . However , he noted that " [ the singer ] can 't even get an actual commercial right . Maybe Madonna really is over . " A parody of the commercial which satirized at Madonna 's age was featured on the ninth season of MADtv .
" Hollywood " was also remixed by American DJ duo Blow @-@ Up . The remix was set to be included on Madonna 's second remix album planned for 2004 ; however , it remained unreleased . A Billboard review by Michael Paoletta considered it a " funky dark remix " . An unofficial remix was commissioned to DJ Junior Vasquez for designer Donatella Versace 's spring / summer 2004 menswear show in Milan , in spite of the singer having a falling out with Vasquez , following the DJ releasing an unauthorized single titled " If Madonna Calls " . The original version that Vasquez played at nightclubs contained an actual phone message from Madonna left on Vasquez 's answering machine . Madonna 's publicist Liz Rosenberg confirmed that this did not mean the singer would collaborate with Vasquez in the future since the commissioning of the remix was just a " personal favor " for Versace .
= = Critical reception = =
" Hollywood " received mixed reviews from music critics . Michael Paoletta from Billboard described the song as " punky " and compared it to " Ray of Light " ( 1998 ) . Dimitri Ebrlich of Vibe magazine gave a positive review for the song , describing it as " disarmingly self @-@ deprecatory as it reflects on people 's desperate attempts to make it in America 's glamor industry " , writing that it was a perfect fit for American Life . Jude Adam of Third Way magazine gave the song a positive review , considering it as " quirky , sunny , and sweet in perfect measures . " Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club considered the song as " actually catchy " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian noted that Madonna divulges in the song that not everyone who wants to make it in the movies succeeds . Jessica Winter from The Village Voice commented that in the song , " Madonna channels a generic teen @-@ pop chanteuse " . Dennis Ferrera from Out , while interviewing Madonna for her 2005 album Confessions on a Dance Floor , described the song as a " killer single " . Another positive review by J. J. Evans from Naperville Sun described " Hollywood " as a track which best exemplifies Madonna 's " silly way of writing " but felt that it worked in this case . Chris Heath from Yahoo ! Music commented that " ' Hollywood ' breaks free of its inferior siblings to strike out as a sexy sliver of dance pop that 's as good as anything on Music " .
Ian Youngs of BBC News noted that the song was another diatribe about fame and how difficult it is being in the public eye . He further added that it " ranks among the disappointments " on the album saying it feels lacklustre and commented about the " embarrassing rap " . Ed Howard from Stylus Magazine commented that barring Madonna 's rapping , " Hollywood " is at least engaging . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine thought " following up ' American Life ' with ' Hollywood ' was nearly as ballsy " due to its lyrical content . Edna Gundersen of USA Today noted that the song " attest [ s ] to her undiminished skills as a shrewd pop composer " . Michael Hubbard of musicOMH commented that everything rhymes with " Hollywood " , and after commented the song would be better without these lazy lyrics , adding " [ The song ] has the name Madonna on it so it will sell , but it 's hardly vintage stuff . Time for some musical reinvention to go with the incessant changes of image . " In another review , Chuck Taylor from Billboard expressed his disappointment with the song . He explained that " Hollywood " is " a far cry from the ingenious fortitude displayed on so many previous singles of [ Madonna 's ] two decades of career " . He panned Ahmadzaï 's limited electronic production and Madonna 's excessive usage of acoustic guitar on the track , along with " whiney , preachy lyrics " . Writing for The Sydney Morning Herald , Bernard Zuel called Ahmadzaï a " one @-@ trick pony " for his production , but felt he pulled it off " on the groove @-@ rich ' Hollywood ' " . Ben Wener from The Beaver County Times condemned the track as a " knowingly hypocritical attack on Hollywood " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Hollywood " failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States , or the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . It was the first time since " Burning Up " ( 1983 ) that a Madonna single did not reach the Hot 100 . However , it peaked at number one on both Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Play and Hot Dance Singles Sales component charts . The debut of the " Hollywood " remixes atop the Dance Singles Sales chart gave Madonna her longest stretch of chart @-@ topping titles on this chart , " Hollywood " being her sixth in a row . This stretch began with " Music " in 2000 , followed by " Don 't Tell Me " , " What It Feels Like for a Girl " , " Die Another Day " and " American Life " . " Hollywood " was Madonna 's 22nd number @-@ one on the Dance Singles Sales chart , the most for any artist . On the Billboard Hot Singles Sales chart , the song debuted at number four , but did not accumulate enough points to appear on the Hot 100 . At the 2003 Billboard Year @-@ end recap , Madonna was the number two Dance Club Play artist and the top Dance Singles artist . " Hollywood " was ranked at numbers 19 , 7 and 45 on the Hot Dance Club Play , Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot Singles Sales charts respectively . Other than the dance charts , " Hollywood " also reached a peak of number 35 on the Adult Pop Songs . In Canada , the song peaked at number five on Canadian Singles Chart .
On July 19 , 2003 , " Hollywood " debuted at its peak of number two in the UK Singles Chart , being kept from the top spot by " Crazy in Love " by Beyoncé Knowles . The song was present for a total of seven weeks on the chart , and as of August 2008 , has sold 59 @,@ 633 copies according to the Official Charts Company . In Australia , " Hollywood " debuted on the chart at number 16 , before falling out to number 37 the next week . On April 27 , 2003 , " American Life " debuted at number 55 on the Austrian Singles Chart , peaking at number 34 after four weeks . The song achieved moderate chart positions in both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , peaking at numbers 14 and 32 , respectively . Making its debut at its peak position of number 22 , " American Life " charted for a total of 23 weeks in France during 2003 . Between 2008 and 2009 , the song charted for five weeks . On the Dutch Singles Chart , the song made its debut at number 12 , spending a total of six weeks in the chart . On April 24 , 2003 , " American Life " debuted at number 20 on the Swedish Singles Chart . Similarly in Switzerland , the song debuted at number 15 on the Swiss Singles Chart , spending 13 weeks on the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Hollywood " was filmed at Universal Studios in Universal City , California and directed by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , who previously worked with Madonna on her videos for " Open Your Heart " ( 1986 ) , " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) , " Human Nature " ( 1995 ) , " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " ( 1996 ) , and " Don 't Tell Me " ( 2000 ) . In the United States , it premiered on June 23 , 2003 , on VH1 . Madonna had long been a fan of the work of French fashion photographer Guy Bourdin since about a decade ago , commenting on his photographs as " They 're so sick and interesting . These girls , you have to see the look on their faces — they 're really bizarre . " Arianne Phillips created the costumes for the video and she described Madonna 's looks as an homage to old Hollywood glamour , while trying to be literal as well as conceptual . She paid tributes to stars like Ginger Rogers , Jean Harlow and Mae West . According to Mondino 's own words , the concept of the video was :
" Some kind of artifice that Hollywood can provide , that is so wide and has a graphic story @-@ line about it as well as some humor about it , and to show the beauty , the scariness , the sexiness and the loneliness that one 's success can be , ' cause everybody 's dreaming about Hollywood , no matter what . The expectation can be very dangerous , and maybe for somebody like Madonna , who might be at a point , to realize that to be on the top is maybe not that important . That 's what I feel about the video . "
The music video features Madonna in different styles and fashions . It also includes her dripping in twenty million dollars worth of vintage jewels and gowns in several transformations , including an original 25 carat ring and bracelet that was worn by West in the 1933 film , She Done Him Wrong . A real doctor ( Dr. David Kish ) was hired by Madonna to administer the fake shots , since she wanted to make the scenes appear real . The first day of shooting took place on June 2 , 2003 , and the scenes shot included the wall @-@ of @-@ mirrors , the massage , the botox injection and the ballet dancing sequences . The next day started with the French maid , the motel TV , the telephone conversation and the glamour shot scenes . Henry Keazor , one of the authors of Rewind , Play , Fast Forward : The Past , Present and Future of the Music Video , noted that Madonna exposed herself during the interventions portrayed in the video , by playing with the rumors and the stereotypes surrounding her .
After the release of the music video for " Hollywood " , Samuel Bourdin , the son of Guy Bourdin , filed a federal lawsuit that accused Madonna of ripping off the work of his father . Bourdin said they are " strikingly similar " to pictures taken by his father from the 1950s to 1980s decades and published in French Vogue magazine . He accused Madonna of copyright infringement over at least eleven of Bourdin 's works , including one of Madonna with her legs spread on top of a TV set . " It 's one thing to draw inspiration ; it 's quite another to simply plagiarize the heart and soul of my father 's work " , Bourdin said at the time . Included in Bourdin 's federal complaint were side @-@ by @-@ side comparisons of his father 's work with images with stills from the " Hollywood " video . According to Dustin Robertson , editor of the " Hollywood " video , the sequences featuring Madonna in a red dress staring into a mirror are the ones which were pointed by Bourdin 's estate in the lawsuit . The lawsuit named Madonna , Warner Bros. Records , and Mondino as defendants . The details presented in the lawsuit read as : " Factors such as composition , background , wardrobe , lighting , narrative , camera angle , decor , and objects depicted are strikingly similar ... There are very few scenes or sequences in the ' Hollywood ' video that are not directly derived from the Bourdin works . " Details of the financial settlement are confidential , and Madonna acknowledged no wrongdoing in her liberal appropriation of the images . Bourdin 's lawyer , John Koegel , said the parties reached a " very , very successful settlement " , adding that terms of the deal did not allow him to discuss exact dollar amounts . In 2011 , news website Independent Online disclosed the settled amount by Madonna to be $ 600 @,@ 000 .
= = Live performances = =
To start marketing American Life , Madonna performed the American Life Promo Tour . A performance on Tower 's Fourth Street in Manhattan was presented to around 400 people and featured acoustic performances of " American Life " , " Mother and Father " , and " Hollywood " . On August 27 , 2003 , Madonna opened the MTV Video Music Awards performing a medley of " Like a Virgin / Hollywood " with Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , and Missy Elliott . The performance started with Madonna 's daughter Lourdes walking on stage with another girl , dressed as flower girls at a wedding . Spears appeared on stage atop of a giant wedding cake , wearing a wedding gown and veil ; she sang the first few lines of " Like a Virgin " before Aguilera appeared from behind the cake and joined her . Madonna then emerged from the cake wearing a black coat and hat and started singing " Hollywood " before proceeding to kiss Spears and Aguilera on the lips . Missy Elliott came out from a wedding chapel to sing her song " Work It " halfway through the performance . The whole performance was a tribute to Madonna and an homage to her performance of " Like a Virgin " at the awards ' inaugural show in 1984 .
The kiss generated strong reaction from the media and the celebrities alike . Nekesa Mumbi Moody from Associated Press deduced " Twenty years after the first MTV Video Music Awards , and not much has changed — Madonna still makes jaws drop and cheeks blush . " Brian Hiatt from Entertainment Weekly felt that " The close @-@ up of [ Madonna ] locking lips with the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Spears was an indelible MTV moment — sexy , vaguely transgressive , and as meaningless as it was entertaining . " Elysa Gardner from USA Today explained that the performance " offered a poignant reminder of MTV 's role in defining a youth culture that has become something of a tease — winking at convention without offering any fresh alternatives . " The MTV producers were skeptical , saying that " It was sensational , but I wonder what the good folk in places like Provo , Utah state , would make of it . Middle America is not gonna let this one go lightly . " When asked about it , Madonna revealed , " I am kissing [ Britney ] and passing my energy on to her . Like kind of a mythological fairytale . " The performance was listed by Blender magazine as one of the twenty @-@ five sexiest music moments on television history . MTV listed the performance as the number @-@ one opening moment in the history of the MTV Video Music Awards . In Madonna 's 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour , a remix interlude of " Hollywood " featured a breakdancer , a firedancer , a bellydancer , a tapdancer , and a skateboarder . The screens displayed animations of tarot cards . The performance was included in the I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret live album and documentary . On the same tour , the performance of " Into the Groove " contained samples from the remix " Into the Hollywood Groove " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lead vocals , background vocals , songwriter , producer
Mirwais Ahmadzaï – songwriter , producer , guitars , programming
Tim Young – audio mastering
Mark " Spike " Stent – audio mixing
Credits for " Hollywood " are adapted from American Life liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Road to Ruin ( Ramones album ) =
Road to Ruin is the fourth studio album by the American punk rock band the Ramones , released on September 21 , 1978 , through Sire Records . It was the first Ramones album to feature new drummer Marky Ramone , who replaced founding member Tommy Ramone . Tommy left due to lack of album sales and stress while touring ; however , he stayed with the band to produce the album with Ed Stasium . The artwork 's concept was designed by Ramones fan Gus MacDonald , and later modified by John Holmstrom to include Marky instead of Tommy .
The songs on Road to Ruin were considered by both fans and critics as an attempt to get the band more airplay . The album incorporated musical elements which were unheard of in punk rock , such as guitar solos and ballads . The difference in style caused for mixed reviews by critics , with many pointing out that the band was trying to sell more records through a change in form . This attempt by the band failed , as Road to Ruin debuted at 103 on the Billboard 200 , nearly 50 places behind its predecessor Rocket to Russia .
= = Conception = =
After the band 's previous album Rocket to Russia saw poor album sales , drummer Tommy Ramone left his performing position to focus primarily on producing for the band . After Tommy suggested they search for a new drummer , they began looking in New York City based clubs . While at CBGB , Ramones bassist Dee Dee Ramone approached Marc Bell ( Marky Ramone ) — who had previously been the drummer in Richard Hell and the Voidoids — asking him if he was interested in joining the Ramones . A month after this confrontation , Bell was invited by Danny Fields and Monte Melnick to audition for the band . Around twenty others auditioned to be drummer , with Tommy overseeing the final choice . Bell played " I Don 't Care " and " Sheena Is a Punk Rocker " and each member agreed to allow him into the band .
Three weeks after Marky joined the band , the Ramones began recording Road to Ruin in Midtown Manhattan at Media Sound Studios , a premises of a former Episcopalian Church . Album engineer Ed Stasium explained the recording process : " After Tommy left the band , we went straight into working on the Road to Ruin album with Marky . We rehearsed a long time with Marky , just getting it down . Then we went into the studio , recorded , and mixed the record at Media Sound . We spent a lot of money , and the entire summer , on Road to Ruin . " Music critic John Young of Rolling Stone called the album 's production " clean and simple , " but pointed out that the track " Bad Brain " contained " funny noises " in between drum beats , which prevents the song from having the humorous asperity that was intended .
The artwork 's concept was originated by Ramones fan Gus MacDonald , who illustrated the members performing with a lobster claw coming out of an amplifier and a snake around their feet . Following the drawing 's completion , MacDonald sent it to the band and they decided to make it their Road to Ruin album cover . This sketch did , however , include original drummer Tommy , so the drawing had to be modified to depict Marky instead . This alteration was undergone by artist John Holmstrom , a Punk magazine associate and designer .
= = Lyrics and compositions = =
The album introduced many characteristics which were previously unheard of in punk rock , such as guitar solos , acoustic rhythm guitars , and ballads . These attributes were debated on by the band 's fans as well as critics , who questioned whether these changes were to expand their musical fashion or the band was simply selling out and abandoning their punk rock edge . Though " Bad Brain , " " I Wanted Everything , " and " I 'm Against It " each serve as basic punk songs to intensify the behavior of the audience , the most popular tracks on the album are the pieces which part from their initial style .
" Road to Ruin reflected not just the Ramone 's enduring love for Sixties pop , but a nagging desire to expand beyond the confines of 120 seconds in search of a new vocabulary of harmonic hooks , albeit linked to the guitar @-@ crunching sonics established on their first three albums . "
The album opens with the midtempo piece " I Just Want to Have Something to Do , " which contains lyrics pertaining to ambivalence and anomie . In the song , Joey manages to rhyme " Second Avenue " with " chicken vindaloo . " The next track , " I Wanted Everything , " is compared to Merle Haggard 's song " If We Make It Through December , " being called its " punk counterpart " by Rock : A Canadian Perspective author Larry Starr . " Questioningly " is a ballad focusing on failing relationships and heartbreak . " Don 't Come Close " uses elements which can also be heard in country music , such as twang .
" She 's the One " suggests that the band will continue making records , while " Needles and Pins " is a cover of the The Searchers ' song " Needles and Pins . " Rolling Stone critic Charles Young noted that the song could have easily been a joke , but was not since Joey " really puts his guts into these antiquated but beautiful lyrics and pulls it off . " " I Wanna Be Sedated " was written by Joey while in the hospital where he was treated for burns on his face and in his throat . The injury was the result of an exploding kettle full of boiling water which served to treat sinuses . The album concludes with " It 's a Long Way Back , " which was written by Dee Dee and depicts his childhood in Germany .
= = Reception = =
With the band 's slight change in musical style , material included on the album was intended to gain a sense of mainstream acceptance , though the band members felt as though this was not achieved . Tommy relates : " Road to Ruin was a flop Stateside , even though it had been a very deliberate attempt to secure American radioplay . " The album 's lack of commercial success showed for a negative impact on the member 's morale , and this exasperation would continue into the band 's future records and tours . On the US Billboard 200 , Road to Ruin peaked at number 103 , while on the UK Albums Chart it reached 32 . The album also debuted at 25 on the Swedish Sverigetopplistan chart . The drive to sell more albums in the United States failed , which is evident when comparing the charting positions to Road to Ruin 's predecessor Rocket to Russia , which peaked at 49 on the Billboard 200 .
Initially , the album received mixed reviews from critics . Roy Trakin of the New York Rocker called the album " uneven " and " sometimes lazy , " and preferred Tommy 's drumming style over Marky 's , writing : " his light , distinctive , jazz @-@ influenced drumming is sorely missed on Road to Ruin as Marky is of the heads @-@ down basher school . " Rolling Stone critic Charles Young noted that the album is not as humorous or influential as their debut , but that the band is not at all " losing its grip . " He observes that the band modified their style because " dumb " people did not understand the music , while " smart " people did . Young also inquired that " I Wanna Be Sedated " was the album 's " killer cut , " comparing it to " Blitzkrieg Bop , " " Loudmouth , " and " Cretin Hop . "
Critical acclaim for the album did not fully transpire until many decades after its release . AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out 5 stars , saying the album fails to " yield the same results as the other records . " He examined that their music mostly repeated past formula and that since the band was still in its prime " such nondescript material sounds good , but the record has neither the exuberant energy or abundant hooks . " Music critic Robert Christgau wrote that the band was constantly " topping itself , " and implied that each track on the album was very listenable except " Bad Brain , " the theme of which he called " repetitious . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ramones ; except where indicated .
Notes
Tracks 13 @-@ 14 first issued on Hey Ho ! Let 's Go : The Anthology , Rhino # 75817 ( 7 / 20 / 99 )
Track 15 is from the original soundtrack album Rock ' n ' Roll High School , Sire # 6070 ( 4 / 79 ) . Produced & Engineered by Ed Stasium . Remix Engineer : Joel Soifer
Track 16 is Previously unreleased . Outtake from Road to Ruin sessions . It appears later on the 1989 album , Brain Drain .
Track 17 was first issued on All the Stuff ( And More ! ) Volume 2 , Sire # 26618 ( 7 / 91 ) . Produced by Tommy Erdelyi , written by Joey Ramone . Recorded during demo sessions for Pleasant Dreams .
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be verified with AllMusic .
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= One Less Lonely Girl =
" One Less Lonely Girl " is a song by singer Justin Bieber . The song was written and produced by Bieber 's mentor , Usher , as well as Ezekiel Lewis , Balewa Muhammad of The Clutch , and A @-@ Rex duo Sean Hamilton and Hyuk Shin . It was released exclusively to iTunes as the second single from his debut release , My World on October 6 , 2009 , and was later released to more digital distributions and mainstream and rhythmic radio soon after .
The song was positively received , with critics commending the song 's delivery and comparing it to pop @-@ R & B beatings by Chris Brown and Rihanna . It was a success in the United States and Canada , Bieber 's highest peaks in the countries at sixty nine and ten , respectively , until " Baby " bested the record in 2010 . It also charted in the Belgium ( Flanders ) tip chart and in Germany within the top thirty , and also charted in Austria , Australia , and United Kingdom . The music video features Bieber attracted to a girl he sees in the laundromat , as he leads her on a scavenger hunt to win a date with her . Bieber has performed the song in a number of live appearances including the Fearless Tour , The Next Star , and Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest .
= = Background and release = =
Regarding the concept of the song , Bieber told MTV News , " I think it 's really important these girls have something so they can be one less lonely girl Bieber joked that " Lonely Girl " wasn 't always the choice for his second single stating " It was either between that or ' I Love High School . ' " , a remix of " I Love College " by label mate , Asher Roth . " One Less Lonely Girl " was released digitally on the iTunes Store on October 6 , 2009 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
Crystal Bell of Billboard gave the song a generally positive review stating " much as he did on his debut single , " One Time , " Bieber makes a strong case for why he 's the next pop heartthrob . ' I 'm gonna put you first , I 'll show you what you 're worth / If you let me inside your world , ' he sings . The stump speech is hard to resist , especially when set to an arrangement that follows the lineage of hit midtempo ballads " With You " , and " Irreplaceable " . Although the lyrics are generic , Bieber 's smooth delivery is right on point , and his tender vocals blend well with the song 's easy @-@ flowing beat . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called the song along with " Down to Earth " , " uncomplicatedly beautiful and earnest . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic listed the song as one of his recommended tracks from the album .
= = Chart performance = =
In the U.S. , the single had 113 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week , propelling it to debut at number sixteen on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated October 24 , 2009 . Bieber scored the second highest debut of the week , only being surpassed by " 3 " by Britney Spears . Due to the impact of mainstream radio in the U.S. , the song entered at thirty six on the Billboard Pop Songs on the week ending December 12 , 2009 , and in turn also re @-@ entered the Hot 100 at sixty nine . It dropped the next week on the Hot 100 , but rose to thirty two on the Pop Songs , and rose again to twenty six the following week . The single peaked at twenty @-@ one on the pop chart . Due to increased airplay and digital sales of My World , on the week ending January 9 , 2010 , the song rose thirty positions from sixty to thirty on the Hot 100 . As of February 2011 , the single has sold over 1 @,@ 025 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States . The song debuted at number ten on the Canadian Hot 100 on the issue dated October 24 , 2009 .
It debuted in Austria at number fifty @-@ four , where it peaked , and remained four weeks on the chart . It debuted on the Belgian Tip Chart in Flanders at number twenty five , where it peaked , and remained for two weeks . It debuted in Germany at number twenty two , where it peaked , and remained for eight weeks . The song also peaked at eighty @-@ two in Australia and sixty two in the United Kingdom .
= = Music video = =
In an October 7 , 2009 , exclusive with MTV News , Bieber confirmed that a music video had been shot in Watertown , Tennessee ( a small town approximately 50 miles east of Nashville , Tennessee ) with Roman White who directed the music video for " You Belong With Me " by Taylor Swift . The video premiered on perezhilton.com on October 9 , 2009 , and was released to iTunes three days later . It later premiered on Bieber 's official site and YouTube on October 13 , 2009 , Bieber 's mother , Pattie Mallette , makes a cameo during the flower stand scene in the music video . While filming the music video , Bieber joked and said , " It ’ s like the biggest town I ’ ve ever been in . " He went on to say , " " It ’ s really small and quaint and cute and cool . Everyone probably knows everyone I guess . " Promotional photography took place around the town a few days before the rest of the video shoot , including Bieber holding posters of his first shoot , and with an old turquoise truck . The video was the first to feature Bieber wearing his signature dog tag . In a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes feature , Bieber said that a fan gave it to him , and it belonged to one of their friends that died in the war . Bieber stated , " I wear it because its cool and kind of a memory . " The basic concept of the video is Bieber 's goal to win a girl 's heart after leading her around the town . Director Roman White said , " It ’ s romantic , it ’ s in a laundromat ... that ’ s all it takes to win a girl is strung lights " .
In the music video , Bieber is attracted to a girl ( Grace Marie Wilson ) he sees every day washing clothes at the local laundromat . In the opening scenes , Bieber is wearing a green hooded sweatshirt , similar to the gray one he wore in the " One Time " video , along with a cranberry shirt . One day while he is waiting for his clothes and is tuning his guitar , she drops a scarf , and he picks it up . In the laundromat scene Bieber is wearing a mixed purple , blue & orange plaid collared shirt , with a dark purple tee . The girl comes back the next day however he is not there . He then posts a sign beside the washer that he found her missing scarf . He leads the girl on a scavenger hunt for the scarf , posting signs with pictures of him on them around the town to encourage her to go on a date with him . He takes pictures of him in situations such as buying chocolate for her and the puppies scene , and others , with notes doting quips of what he would do for her . During the date and ending scenes Bieber has on a white striped collared shirt , with a dark cyan tee . She finally finds him at the end of the video and they have their date .
MTV called the video " lost @-@ and @-@ found action with a scarf that eventually leads to some young love , " and gives credit to Bieber as a new sensation , stating " The setting for " One Less Lonely Girl " seems to be Main Street , USA ... And why not ? Is this kid not the slice of apple pie cooling on the window sill of the American teen dream ? " AOL calls the video a " treasure hunt " and commended the pet store scene , saying " And then , as if the video couldn 't get more cute , they bring out the puppies . "
= = Merchandise = =
The " One Less Lonely Girl " phrase spawned several products from Bieber 's official store to have the coined phrase on them . One of the products is a cranberry colored scarf , the same color as a shirt Bieber wore in the music video . One end of the scarf has a patch with the " One Less Lonely Girl " phrase on it and the other end has a signature by Bieber . Tamar Antai of MTV Buzzworthy called the scarf " boundsly adorable " and " a total bargain for less loneliness " . Another product was a white t @-@ shirt that had the phrase stylized as " 1LessL ♥ nleyGirl " in variations of sky blue colors . In December 2009 , Bieber teamed up with 1 @-@ 800 @-@ Flowers for a promotion . The company came out with a " One Less Lonely Girl " -branded bouquet of red " intuition " roses and a Valentine 's Day card from Bieber , depicting the singer holding a heart . Packages could either have a twenty @-@ four or twelve count stems , and a red , silver or clear vase . The flowers could be set for delivery between January 12 @-@ February 12 , 2010 , before Valentine 's Day . The first one thousand customers received a free replica of the scarf in the " One Less Lonely Girl " video . A portion of the proceeds went to Pencils of Promise , a charity that helps build schools in developing areas of the world . Bieber frequently participates in the charity . A contest was also set in place in which a winner would be greeted with their flowers by Bieber himself , or could win the flower bouquet and other Justin Bieber merchandise .
= = Live performances = =
Bieber has performed " One Less Lonely Girl " as an acoustic rendition and with the original musical background . He premiered the song , performing an acoustic rendition when he made a return appearance to his native Canada on the finale of YTV 's The Next Star . Bieber performed the song along with his lead single " One Time " on September 26 , 2009 . He also performed the song acoustically when he appeared on It 's On with Alexa Chung on November 19 , 2009 . When Bieber performs the song with the musical background , he invites one or two girls on stage to be the object of his affection or the " lonely girl " during the performance . Bieber performed the song with the original musical background along with " One Time " , and " Favorite Girl " on his U.S. network television debut on The Today Show . He also performed the song with the musical background on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , and during Winter 2009 when he performed at several different Jingle Ball concerts . When Bieber performed at Q100 's Jingle Ball in Atlanta , Georgia , where Bieber 's career is based out of , he invited good friend and former girlfriend , Caitlin Beadles , who had recently recovered from a boating accident , on stage as the girl during the song . Bieber performed the single as his second song during Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest , and invited his friend and fellow performer that night , Selena Gomez on stage to act as the lonely girl . The performance onstage fueled further speculation of a relationship between Bieber and Gomez but both claimed they were just friends , as they did before . He sang the song on VH1 's Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam , along with other performers Rihanna and Timbaland , and on CBS ' The Early Show as a part of their Super Bowl programming . He performed a medley of " One Less Lonely Girl " and " Never Let You Go " , along with " Baby " at BET 's SOS : Help for Haiti Telethon . As the telethon was also being broadcast in Haiti , Bieber sang the first verse in French . During the Purpose World Tour , Bieber unexpectedly performed the song at the tour for the very last time .
= = Controversy = =
A parody of the song performed by Bieber caused controversy after a video of it was released by the entertainment news website TMZ on June 4 , 2014 . The video featured a then 14 @-@ year @-@ old Bieber , parodying the song with the main lyric " One less lonely nigger , " and that if he were to kill " one less lonely nigger , " he 'd be " part of the KKK . " Sources stated that Bieber told his mentors , singer Usher and actor Will Smith , about the video after it was filmed , after which Usher showed Bieber some historically racist videos in an effort to teach him about the degradational intent of the word " nigger " and other racial epithets . On June 5 , 2014 , the rapper and president of Young Money Entertainment , Mack Maine chose to defend Bieber after the racist remarks . He said Maine says Bieber is still family for the artists on Young Money , according to TMZ . The publication reports that Maine says Bieber has black friends and that " Bieber does not have a slave mentality . " According to Mack Maine , Bieber " treats his people with respect . " Mack Maine has said that he brought up a racial joke in his past . " I remember telling a White man , Chinese man , Black man joke as a kid that was terrible , " Maine says , " and I told it to my friends because I thought they 'd think it was funny . " Mack Maine also confirms that Young Money and Justin Bieber are slated to continue working together . On the same day , Bieber made an announcement of his apology for the parody .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Vance Tate , Thomas Olivera , Ezekiel Lewis , Balewa Muhammad , Sean Hamilton , Hyuk Shin ( Joombas )
Production - Ezekiel Lewis , Balewa Muhammad , Sean Hamilton , Hyuk Shin ( Joombas ) , Vance Tate , Thomas Olivera
Vocal production and recording - Ezekiel Lewis and Dave Hyman
Mixing - Jaycen Joshua @-@ Fowler and Dave Pensado , assisted by Giancarlo Lino
A & R Consultants - Vance Tate , Steve Owens and Rosalind Harrell
Source
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Three of a Kind ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Three of a Kind " is the twentieth episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on May 2 , 1999 in the United States . The episode was written by Vince Gilligan and John Shiban , and directed by Bryan Spicer . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Three of a Kind " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , being watched by 12 @.@ 9 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics , with some noting that the episode served as a stop @-@ gap .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , The Lone Gunmen run into the enigmatic Susanne Modeski . After deceiving Scully into joining them , the trio soon find out that Susanne 's fiancé is planning to use her new brainwashing drug for political assassinations .
" Three of a Kind " functions as a sequel of sorts to the fifth season episode " Unusual Suspects " , concluding the story of The Lone Gunmen and Susanne Modeski , the woman who led to the creation of the trio . While Mulder played a supporting role in " Unusual Suspects " , the concept is reversed in " Three of a Kind " , with Scully helping out The Lone Gunmen .
= = Plot = =
During a high @-@ stakes poker game Lone Gunman John Fitzgerald Byers ( Bruce Harwood ) is thrown out after being exposed as a fraud at a government convention in Las Vegas . Unbeknownst to Richard Langly ( Dean Haglund ) and Melvin Frohike ( Tom Braidwood ) , Byers is still harboring an attraction to Susanne Modeski , a fellow conspirator who mysteriously disappeared almost ten years ago . Byers hopes that he will meet her at the convention .
The Gunmen cleverly trick Agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) into coming to Las Vegas using a text to speech program . Their friend Jimmy uses his special technique for gaining access to a secret meeting room where he believes he will learn about new assassination techniques employed by the government . However , Jimmy is discovered and injected with a mystery drug which forces him to kill himself . Meanwhile , Byers discovers that Susanne is alive and well , but has seemingly become a secretive government agent .
Scully performs Jimmy 's autopsy when she is attacked by an agent who injects something into her , who collapses . After being confronted by Byers , Susanne reveals that she is pretending to have switched sides so she , along with her fiancee Grant Ellis , can slow progress on the government 's harmful initiatives . She works alongside the Gunmen to set up Grant , whom she discovers has been lying to her .
Timmy , the late Jimmy 's friend , asks Langly to attend a Dungeons & Dragons game in Jimmy 's honor . The game , however , is a setup to inject Langly with a drug that effectively controls the subject 's mind , much like Scully and Jimmy . Frohike finds an extremely flirtatious Scully at the bar with a large cluster of men around her . He takes her back to the suite where Susanne recognizes the effects of the drug , which she identifies as anoetic histamine . She reveals that she had not actually made the compound , except for a small batch accessible only to her and Grant , confirming his betrayal .
Susanne counteracts the weapon 's effect on Scully as Langly returns . Langly reports to Timmy the next morning and is given his instructions : Enter the meeting room using the provided pass and fire three rounds into Susanne Modeski . Scully attempts to enter the meeting hall but is stopped by security outside . Langly draws a gun and shoots Susanne Modeski three times in the chest during the break . Scully comes in with the guard and has him call for an ambulance . Byers and Frohike arrive as the EMTs and take her away on a stretcher . It is revealed that Susanne realized Langly had been injected and counteracted the drug 's effect on him . Together , Scully , Susanne , and the Lone Gunmen orchestrated an elaborate ruse to allow Susanne to escape . Unfortunately the ruse fails , as Timmy Landau tastes the " blood " on the floor and realizes it is just corn syrup .
Grant Ellis is taken to Susanne Modeski by Scully so she can confront him about why he gave the drug to the government . She is furious as she could have been killed had she not checked Langly the night before . Ellis admits that he only betrayed her because the government threatened his own life . Timmy arrives , guns down Grant Ellis , and takes Susanne to the Lone Gunmen 's suite .
Timmy prepares to gun down Langly and Frohike , but is injected with the mind control drug by Byers . As it takes hold of him and he collapses , and the Lone Gunmen successful mind control him into turning himself in . Byers explains to Susanne Modeski that , for all intents and purposes , she is deceased and that she has a new identity . She asks Byers to go with her to start a new life , but he explains he has to keep up the fight . She kisses him goodbye and hands over a wedding ring meant for Grant Ellis .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and writing = = =
" Three of a Kind " functions as a sequel of sorts to the fifth season episode " Unusual Suspects " , concluding a minor story @-@ arc featuring The Lone Gunmen and Susanne Modeski , the woman who led to the creation of the trio . At the time of filming for " Three of a Kind " , David Duchovny , who portrays Fox Mulder , was unavailable for filming because he was preparing his directing debut , " The Unnatural " . Only David Duchovny 's voice appears in the episode , during a scene when The Lone Gunmen electronically synthesize it in order to convince Scully to travel to Las Vegas . In order to compensate for this loss , co @-@ executive producers Vince Gilligan and John Shiban decided to write an episode based around The Lone Gunmen . The two wanted to bring back several characters and unresolved plot lines , mostly notably the disappearance of Susanne Modeski . Gilligan explained , " I 'd been thinking a lot about what happened to Susanne Modeski — what happened to her after she drove off with X in that mysterious car at the end of ' Unusual Suspects ' " . Gilligan and Shiban soon formulated a plot that revolved around the Lone Gunmen in Las Vegas . " Las Vegas just seemed a really good place to put these guys . First of all , because the idea of them running through a casino is instantly hilarious . But the other thing [ ... ] is that Las Vegas is in some ways the most watched city in the world " . Furthermore , Michael McKean , who portrayed Morris Fletcher in the two @-@ part episode " Dreamland " , makes a brief cameo as one of the men flirting with Scully .
The entire sub @-@ plot featuring Susanne Modeski caused a minor continuity error that had to be retconned . Bruce Harwood , the actor who portrayed Byers , originally wore a wedding ring when he first portrayed the character , noting , " I 'd worn my wedding ring [ during the first part of the series ] so I imagined a married life for Byers " . During the filming of " Unusual Suspects " — an episode that would largely feature Byers feeling a romantic connection to Susanne — Harwood removed his wedding ring , deducing that in 1989 , when the episode took place , Byers had not been married yet . However , " Three of a Kind " — which takes place in 1999 — features Byers once again romantically drawn to Susanne . Harwood explained , " And then [ the producers ] brought back the character Suzanne [ sic ] Modeski back in season six , and that was supposed to be in the present . So I had to redo my back story ; I said Byers had been divorced " .
= = = Filming = = =
Despite budgetary constraints , the crew of The X @-@ Files were given the green @-@ light to film on location in Las Vegas . This would make Las Vegas only one of the few cities to effectively " play itself " in the series . However , only two days were scheduled for Las Vegas , and most of the scenes were filmed in California at the Century Plaza and Park Hyatt , two hotels relatively close to the Fox studio . Furthermore , Gillian Anderson never had to leave Los Angeles to film the episode . Location manager Ilt Jones noted that The X @-@ Files crew 's desire to film on location at various hotels in Las Vegas caused a bidding war , " We went down this list of forty or fifty hotels known to be film @-@ friendly . [ ... ] At first , the reaction was sort of luke @-@ warm , then all of a sudden someone realized that this was The X @-@ Files , for heavens sake , seen by I @-@ can 't @-@ tell @-@ you @-@ how @-@ many millions [ ... ] then this huge bidding war broke out " . Eventually , Monte Carlo Resort and Casino was selected for shooting . In exchange for a special billing denoting " Production Assistance Provided by " and several shots of the hotel 's name appearing in the episode , The X @-@ Files crew received fee @-@ free permission to film anywhere in the hotel during day hours , as well as full access to the hotel 's illuminated message board .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Three of a Kind " first aired in the United States on May 2 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 , with a 12 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 12 @.@ 94 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on July 4 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 87 million viewers , making it the second most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " What 's gotten into Scully ? Tonight , when Scully hits Vegas , you 'll see a side of her you 've never seen before . "
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics , with many noting that the episode served as a stop @-@ gap . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Three of a Kind " two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , calling the episode " likeable and good @-@ natured , and utterly redundant , this passes forty @-@ five minutes pleasantly enough , but you 'll be hard pushed to remember them afterwards " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris noted that the episode did " an adequate job , but all in all , this is a filler episode , more substitutes than the real thing " .
Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote that , " ' Three of a Kind ' took the premise [ of the Lone Gunmen ] and ran with it , offering up a quasi @-@ entertaining effort that indulges [ the trio ] ' s paranoia , banishes Mulder from sight and offers up a very flirtatious Dana Scully . It was all cute and harmless . Kinda like The Lone Gunmen themselves . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " and called it " the second part of a story which didn ’ t really need one " but also noted that the " laid @-@ back , let ’ s just hang out and have some fun vibe " of the episode made the entry " very , very easy to watch . " Furthermore , he praised the scene wherein Scully is drugged , calling it " hilarious " and " glorious " .
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= AgustaWestland Apache =
The AgustaWestland Apache is a licence @-@ built version of the AH @-@ 64D Apache Longbow attack helicopter for the British Army 's Army Air Corps . The first eight helicopters were built by Boeing ; the remaining 59 were assembled by Westland Helicopters ( now part of Leonardo @-@ Finmeccanica ) at Yeovil , Somerset in England from Boeing @-@ supplied kits . Changes from the AH @-@ 64D include Rolls @-@ Royce Turbomeca engines , a new electronic defensive aids suite and a folding blade mechanism allowing the British version to operate from ships . The helicopter was initially designated WAH @-@ 64 by Westland Helicopters and was later designated Apache AH Mk 1 ( often shortened to Apache AH1 ) by the Ministry of Defence .
The Apache was a valued form of close air support in the conflict in Afghanistan , being deployed to the region in 2006 . The Apache has been an object of controversy over the fitting of some munitions , such as cluster bombs and thermobaric weapons . Naval trials and temporary deployments at sea have proven the aircraft as an able platform to operate from the decks of ships , which is a unique application of the Apache amongst its operators . British Apaches served in the NATO 2011 military intervention in Libya operating from Royal Navy ships .
= = Development = =
The requirement for a new attack helicopter was identified by the British government in the early 1990s . In 1993 , invitations to bid were issued . Bids received included the Eurocopter Tiger , a modernised Bell AH @-@ 1 SuperCobra , the AH @-@ 64 Apache , the Boeing / Sikorsky RAH @-@ 66 Comanche , and the Agusta A129 Mangusta . Both the Tiger and Cobra variant were derided for requiring development , and thus risk , while the Apache was combat proven , however its performance in the First Gulf War was criticised by competitors . Westland and the Apache was selected in July 1995 , a contract for 67 helicopters was signed in 1996 .
In September 1998 , Westland produced the first prototype WAH @-@ 64 Apache under licence from Boeing . The first nine Apache AH1s were authorised for service by the director of British Army Aviation on 16 January 2001 . The 67th and final Apache was handed over to the British Army in July 2004 . The helicopter fleet 's cost was around £ 3 @.@ 1 billion , with a total acquisition cost of £ 4 @.@ 1 billion . Reliability had been questioned by US Apache operations , the entire fleet in the Balkans had been grounded due to serious tail rotor failures in 1999 . In 1998 , the Longbow radar 's development ran into problems regarding its weight , impact upon overall agility , and data transfer abilities . These problems with key aircraft components , and fleet 's high cost , led to calls for its cancellation in 1999 .
When the requirement for the Apache had been formalised in the early 1990s , military doctrine assumed that a large conventional armoured assault from the Eastern Bloc was Britain 's main threat . Following the collapse and break @-@ up of the Soviet Union , the concepts of flexibility and rapid response took precedence . The UK 's Strategic Defence Review called for Apaches to undertake amphibious attack missions , operating from the helicopter carrier HMS Ocean , the Invincible class aircraft carriers and their successors , the Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carriers , and possibly the amphibious assault vessels HMS Bulwark and Albion . Each squadron equipped with the Apache should have eight operational aircraft .
The Westland Apache experienced delays in entering service due to complications with the modifications made for British service . Prior entering service in 2004 , several development problems were noted , including a lack of the ability to securely communicate with other helicopters and a risk of damage to the tail rotor and airframe from firing its Hellfire missiles . The problem with using the Hellfire was debris generated by the firing of missiles , both the Hellfire and CRV7 rockets , could strike the body of the aircraft and cause damage ; resolving this issue created a delay to training programmes . These problems were corrected prior to entering service , a secure communications suite was installed and Hellfire missiles are routinely fired by Apaches . In 2002 , government sources stated that full operational capability was set to be achieved by 2010 .
In 2005 , an out @-@ of @-@ service date for the Apache was forecast at 2030 , but the Army is looking at a capability sustainment programme ( CSP ) that will extend their life to 2040 . It was thought that updates would be necessary by 2017 because the US Army is to withdraw support for the AH @-@ 64D Block I on which the British Apaches are based , but US budget problems pushed this back to 2019 or 2020 . A decision will be taken in 2014 on the extent to which Britain will adopt the Block III upgrades of the AH @-@ 64E - the options range from abandoning the capability altogether to buying brand new Block III helicopters but Boeing believe it is most likely that Britain will remanufacture , putting the existing engines and avionics into new airframes .
In August 2015 , the UK requested through a Foreign Military Sale , the upgrade of 50 of its Apaches to AH @-@ 64E standard . In July 2016 , the UK placed an order for 50 AH @-@ 64Es through the US Foreign Military Sales ( FMS ) programme instead of upgrading their AgustaWestland @-@ built AH @-@ 64s . Leonardo Helicopters ( formerly AgustaWestland ) will continue to lead the support the existing Apache AH1s until they are retired from service in 2023 – 24 .
= = Design = =
Several deviations were made to the standard Apache design used by the US and those exported to other countries . One major difference is the use of a pair of Rolls @-@ Royce Turbomeca RTM322 01 / 12 engines , replacing the original General Electric T700 @-@ GE @-@ 701C engines . The Rolls @-@ Royce engine produces 1 @,@ 565 kW ( 2 @,@ 100 hp ) vs. 1 @,@ 410 kW ( 1 @,@ 890 hp ) for the GE T700C engine . Compared to many helicopters used by coalition forces in Afghanistan , the Apache required less modification to serve in the region due to special filters incorporated into the design . Another change is the folding blade mechanism to stow the helicopters in confined spaces ; the rotor blades also have anti @-@ ice protection to allow operations in Arctic environments .
There were changes made to the sensor and avionics outfitting the craft as well ; connectivity with the BOWMAN secure communications system to interact with other British military units being a significant one . The Selex ES ( formerly BAE Systems Avionics ) Helicopter Integrated Defensive Aids System ( HIDAS ) was also fitted . The HIDAS system was retrofitted onto the aircraft in mid @-@ 2004 just prior to entering service , along with several redesigned composite bodywork components . An eye @-@ safe training laser to allow the Apache to function as a target designator was also installed .
Instead of the American Hydra 70 rocket pods , the Westland Apache can carry up to 76 CRV7 rockets . The CRV7 uses a modular warhead : " a high explosive , semi @-@ armour piercing warhead for attacks on unarmoured targets and a kinetic energy penetrator , which contains no explosive , for attacks on armoured targets " . There used to be a third type of warhead : the Multi @-@ Purpose Sub Munition ( MPSM ) , which was a controversial weapon as it has been classified as a cluster bomb ; each rocket contained nine M73 submunitions . In May 2008 , several senior officers , such as General David Ramsbotham spoke out against British plans to keep the weapon . In the same month , Britain , as one of the 111 participating nations , agreed to ban cluster bombs on humanitarian grounds . Britain destroyed the last of its CRV7 MPSMs in July 2009 .
Like the US AH @-@ 64D Apache Longbow , the Apache AH1 carries a fire @-@ control radar ( FCR ) and Radar Frequency Interferometer ( RFI ) , providing an integrated surveillance and attack system . The ' Longbow ’ radar is the bulbous unit over the rotor hub assembly ; radar placement above the rotors allows the Apache to hover behind cover scanning for targets , with only the radar unit exposed . Additionally , the Longbow radar can monitor traffic in the Apache 's airspace . The radar can also be used for surveillance and terrain profiling . A modem is interfaced into the Longbow radar and other sensor systems to relay information to other aircraft , this allows other Apaches to fire on targets identified by only a single helicopter .
AgustaWestland have since made several upgrades to Britain 's Apache fleet . In May 2005 , a $ 212 million contract was awarded to equip all 67 Mk1 helicopters with the Apache Arrowhead sensor system upgrade , to be completed by 2010 . In 2009 , it was announced that AgustaWestland was also integrating new external fuel tanks with ballistic protection . Some of the internal fuel tanks can be removed , Apaches in Afghanistan may have these removed to allow for extra ammunition for the cannon to be fitted . It has been suggested that advanced rotor blades and additional controls to improve the agility of the aircraft may be fitted in a mid @-@ life update of the fleet . There is also a proposal to upgrade WAH @-@ 64s to the AH @-@ 64E Guardian standard .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Overview = = =
In May 2005 , the first Apache @-@ equipped regiment achieved operational status . The Westland Apache has replaced the Westland Lynx AH7 as the British Army 's tactical attack helicopter . The Apache is currently operated by two regiments of the Army Air Corps ( 3 Regt AAC and 4 Regt AAC ) as part of 16 ( Air Assault ) Brigade . The Apache is intended to operate in the armed reconnaissance and attack roles , similar to the US usage of Apaches during the 1991 Gulf War . Unlike US versions , the Westland Apache has been partially navalised and now serves aboard Royal Navy ships in addition to its land @-@ based role . It achieved maritime certification in December 2005 aboard HMS Ocean . On 17 November 2006 , HMS Ark Royal became the first aircraft carrier to land an Apache AH1 .
They first appeared in combat as part of Operation Herrick in Afghanistan in May 2006 . In August 2006 , the intense usage of Apaches in Afghanistan led to British commanders admitting that weapons and spare parts were being used at a far greater rate , and subsequently a greater cost , than anticipated . On 11 November 2007 , it was reported that half of the Apache gunships in British service had been grounded as they had fallen below the level considered " fit for purpose " , along with several other British Helicopters such as the Chinook and Merlin HC3 . By November 2008 , the situation had further declined , out of 67 aircraft only 20 were available for combat operations . In 2009 , AgustaWestland was awarded a contract for support services for the Apache and many components such as the Longbow radar ; in the following months senior officers noted that the support change had resulted in higher availability . In June 2011 , civilian maintainers of the Apache at Wattisham Airfield threatened industrial action over a pay dispute .
In October 2008 it was announced that Prince Harry had begun the process of qualifying to become an Apache pilot . In May 2010 , the terrorist organisation Al Qaeda threatened to abduct the prince if he piloted an Apache in Afghanistan . In April 2011 , Prince Harry was promoted to captain following his completion of Apache conversion training . In June 2011 , sections of the media reported that Prince Harry was to deploy to Afghanistan as an Apache pilot in 2012 . He subsequently deployed to Afghanistan as part of 662 Squadron in September 2012 .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
The Apache 's first operational tour was as part of 16 Air Assault Brigade in Afghanistan ; there were eight Apache AH1s deployed in Afghanistan in February 2007 . These were drawn from No. 656 Squadron and No. 664 Squadron of 9 Regiment AAC , based at Dishforth Airfield . Unlike their American counterparts in Afghanistan , the Apache AH1 is deployed with its Longbow Fire Control Radar to enable the pilot to better manage traffic in their airspace . Initially pilots had to often fly for 16 – 18 hours at a time due to the low number of Apaches in the theatre ; typically each Apache would be stationed in Afghanistan for eight weeks before returning to Britain for roughly eight weeks of maintenance . On 22 May 2006 , a UK Apache operating in Afghanistan 's Helmand province used a Hellfire missile to destroy an abandoned French vehicle to protect sensitive equipment .
The Apache quickly became a highly valued tool against insurgents , able to escort ground and air forces and rapidly respond to Taliban forces on the ground . Major Huw Williams , second in command of 3rd Battalion , The Parachute Regiment , stated that : " We 're really impressed [ with the Apache ] . It 's a very effective beast . " It has been noted that Taliban forces refer to the aircraft as the " Mosquito " .
On 13 January 2007 , a 200 @-@ strong British force , led by Royal Marines , launched an operation to attack Jugroom Fort , a major Taliban base in southern Helmand Province . After several hours of intense fighting , the Marines regrouped and it was discovered that Lance Corporal Mathew Ford of 45 Commando Royal Marines was missing . A rescue mission was launched using four volunteers , Royal Marines and a Royal Engineer , strapped to the stub @-@ wings of two Apaches . The helicopters could not travel above 50 mph to ensure the safety of the extra passengers from rotor downwash . The Apaches landed under fire inside the compound , after which the rescuers dismounted and recovered the body of LCpl Ford . Ford 's body was flown out in the same manner that the soldiers arrived . Other Apaches hovered above , providing suppressive fire throughout . None of the rescuers were injured in the recovery mission and they were later hailed for their bravery .
In May and June 2008 , British and Afghan National Army forces conducted Operation Eagle 's Eye , aimed at disrupting Taliban activities to the south of Musa Qaleh ; a key portion of which was a major night @-@ time helicopter raid , rapidly deploying members of 2nd Battalion , Parachute Regiment into the town . In June 2008 , a British Apache fired a thermobaric Hellfire missile ; the controversial usage of such weapons was approved after extensive legal and ethical evaluations within the MoD . In June 2008 , a Taliban leader and several cell members were killed in Helmand Province by a Hellfire missile launched by an Apache of the 664 Army Air Corps . There was a friendly fire incident in July 2008 , in which an Apache fired upon a position thought to be held by enemy forces , but instead hit members of a British patrol . This was the first time that a British aircraft had been involved in a blue @-@ on @-@ blue incident in Afghanistan . Although the Apaches have become targets for insurgents , as of November 2008 no British Apaches have been lost to enemy fire . In September 2008 , an Apache was seriously damaged by a crash shortly after takeoff in Helmand province , no loss of life occurred but the airframe was written off .
In early to mid @-@ 2009 , several narcotics and bomb @-@ making facilities were raided by British forces , supported by Apaches . In April 2009 , it was reported that an Apache had been used to intercept a suicide bombing attack in Helmand province . During the Summer of 2009 , British Apaches were an integral component of Operation Panther 's Claw , which was aimed at pushing insurgents out of civilian areas in the runup to the 2009 Afghan Elections . During this major offensive , Apaches from the UK routinely flew alongside US Cobra helicopters to provide air support to soldiers of 3rd Battalion Black Watch and the Royal Marines conducting ground operations . During the Summer 2009 operations , a senior Taliban leader , Mullah Mansur , and several accomplices were killed in a precision strike launched by an Apache .
On 13 October 2010 , newspapers reported that Army Air Corps maintenance workers had accidentally sent a live CRV7 missile in regular mail from Camp Bastion to the UK , a mistake which inspections had missed four times ; when the missile was discovered it sparked an evacuation , the MoD later changed procedure in regards to the incident . On 25 July 2011 , the MoD announced that during a combat operation in the Nahr @-@ e @-@ Saraj district of Helmand province , several Afghan children had been injured from crossfire by an Apache ; they were flown to Camp Bastion for medical treatment .
From 2006 to April 2014 , British Apache helicopters flew 50 @,@ 000 hours in Afghanistan , representing one @-@ third of all UK Apache flying .
= = = Naval operations and Libya = = =
In May 2011 , the MoD announced that the Apache fleet had reached 100 @,@ 000 hours flying time , and describing it as a " vital battlefield tool in Afghanistan " . The Apache was also recognised as having established a " limited maritime strike capability " and were deploying on vessels such as HMS Ocean . On 17 May 2011 , the Apache tested its Hellfire missiles against sea targets for the first time , 9 missiles were fired with a 100 % success rate . Media speculation suggested that the speed on trialling and establishing an Apache maritime presence is due to the withdrawal of the British Aerospace Harrier II , as a stopgap replacement .
On 27 May 2011 , military officials announced that Apaches would be deployed as part of Operation Ellamy , the ongoing military intervention in Libya . The helicopters operated from the flight deck of HMS Ocean in conjunction with French Eurocopter Tiger helicopters over Misrata . The Apaches were also to assist in Operation Unified Protector , the enforcement of an embargo and no @-@ fly zone upon Libya . On 14 June 2011 , reports of British preparation to evacuate Yemen emerged , involving Apache and Merlin helicopters operating from Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessels off the coast .
On 4 June 2011 , Apaches struck targets within Libya for the first time , destroying a radar site and an armed checkpoint near the town of Brega . Further precision strikes were launched by Apaches , typical targets were mobile air defenses , and were occasionally engaged by AK @-@ 47 fire from ground troops . In early June , Apaches conducted attacks on Gaddafi loyalists assaulting the town of Misrata . On 13 June , British Apaches destroyed several inflatable boats with 30 mm cannon fire , believed to be Libyan Special Forces , before engaging and destroying multiple vehicles along the coastline , including an anti @-@ aircraft system . On 25 June , in coordination with RAF Panavia Tornado strikes , Apaches attacked loyalist infantry and vehicles around Brega and its airfield . On 1 July , British Apaches were reportedly involved in a ' fierce ' battle at the town of Khoms . On 2 July , Apaches destroyed several tanks and a bunker at a military camp near Zawiya . On 5 August , Apaches participated in the rebel push for the town of Zliten was reported .
By 21 June 2011 , the Libyan government had dubiously claimed to have successfully shot down dozens of aircraft , including five Apaches ; NATO denied these claims and no Apache losses have been acknowledged to date . On 8 July 2011 , the MoD released information on the first month of Apache combat operations over Libya ; noting that Apaches had engaged targets within Libya on 39 occasions . Apache operations over Libya have been heavily influenced and supported by NATO reconnaissance flights and intelligence missions ; information is continually relayed to update target information , assess the threat of Surface to Air missiles ( SAM ) , and the presence of civilians , enabling real time changes to mission profiles . On 6 August , Apaches struck a military communications facility and troops at Al Watiyah . Both the Apache and the Eurofighter Typhoon were withdrawn from Libyan operations in September 2011 as operational demands decreased .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
British Army Air Corps
No. 653 Squadron AAC
No. 662 Squadron AAC
No. 663 Squadron AAC - to be operational Conversion Squadron from 2015
No. 654 Squadron AAC ( former operator )
No. 656 Squadron AAC
No. 664 Squadron AAC
No. 668 Squadron AAC - Training Squadron
No. 673 Squadron AAC- Training Squadron
= = Specifications ( Apache AH1 ) = =
Data from AgustaWestland page Jane 's Air Forces , British Army
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 17 @.@ 7 m ( 58 ft 4 in with rotors turning )
Rotor diameter : 14 @.@ 6 m ( 48 ft )
Height : 3 @.@ 87 m ( 12 ft 8 in )
Disc area : 168 @.@ 11 m2 ( 1 @,@ 809 @.@ 5 ft2 )
Empty weight : 5 @,@ 165 kg ( 11 @,@ 387 lb )
Loaded weight : 8 @,@ 006 kg ( 17 @,@ 650 lb )
Max takeoff weight : 9 @,@ 525 kg ( 21 @,@ 000 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Rolls @-@ Royce / Turbomeca RTM322 turboshaft , 1 @,@ 693 kW ( 2 @,@ 270 hp ) each
Performance
Never exceed speed : 365 km / h ( 197 knots , 227 mph )
Maximum speed : 293 km / h ( 158 knots , 182 mph )
Cruise speed : 259 km / h ( 140 knots , 161 mph )
Range : 537 km ( 290 nmi , 334 mi )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 700 km ( 974 nmi , 1 @,@ 121 mi )
Service ceiling : 6 @,@ 400 m ( 21 @,@ 000 ft )
Rate of climb : 12 @.@ 7 m / s ( 2 @,@ 500 ft / min )
Armament
Guns : M230 Chain Gun , 1200 rounds
Missiles : Hellfire ( and Stinger , Starstreak , Sidewinder / Sidearm , Brimstone proposed )
Rockets : CRV7 with Flechette ( Tungsten dart ) or High @-@ Explosive Incendiary Semi @-@ Armour Piercing ( HEISAP ) warheads . Until 2008 also MPSM with nine M @-@ 73 bomblets .
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= Velepromet camp =
The Velepromet camp was a detention facility established in the final days of the Battle of Vukovar during the Croatian War of Independence . The camp was set up by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) , which shared control of the facility with the Croatian Serb troops . The facility , originally an industrial storage site , was located on the southern outskirts of the city of Vukovar , in close proximity to the JNA barracks . It consisted of eight warehouses surrounded by a wire fence , and was established on 16 November 1991 , when the first detainees were brought there .
Few days after the end of the Battle of Vukovar , there were 2 @,@ 000 detainees in the camp . Detainees usually spent several days in the camp , during which some of them were interrogated , beaten and killed . Up to 10 @,@ 000 detainees passed through the camp before it was closed down in March 1992 , when the United Nations Protection Force deployed to the area . Anywhere between 15 and 800 inmates may have been killed at the camp , though the latter figure includes approximately 700 people who are missing and presumed dead . The events in the camp formed part of three indictments issued by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia . As of 2014 , two of the trials are ongoing , while the trial of Slobodan Milošević was terminated following his death .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica , HDZ ) , ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) confiscated the weapons of Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana - TO ) forces to minimize resistance . On 17 August , tensions escalated into an open revolt by Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . This revolt was followed by two unsuccessful attempts by Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , to obtain the approval of the Yugoslav Presidency for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces in January 1991 .
After a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March , the JNA itself , supported by Serbia and its supporters , asked the Presidency to give it wartime powers and declare a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March , and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the Presidency . By the end of the month , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . The JNA stepped in , increasingly supporting Croatian Serb insurgents and preventing Croatian police from intervening . In early April , the leaders of the Croatian Serb revolt declared their intention to integrate the area under their control , known as the Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina , with Serbia . The Government of Croatia viewed this declaration as an attempt to secede . In May , the Croatian government responded by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde - ZNG ) , but its development was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo introduced in September . On 8 October , Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia .
The second half of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , as the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia culminated in the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar . The Battle of Vukovar ended on 18 November , when the JNA captured the city after nearly three months of fighting . At the same time , Croatian Serb authorities began systematically expelling non @-@ Serb civilians from areas under their control . The expulsions in the area of eastern Slavonia were primarily motivated by the aim of changing the ethnic composition in favour of Serbs as well as the resettling of Serb refugees who had fled western Slavonia following Operation Swath @-@ 10 by the Croatian Army .
= = Timeline = =
The Velepromet storage facility is located on the southern edge of Vukovar , in the Sajmište city district , a few hundred metres from the JNA barracks . It consists of eight sheet metal warehouses , surrounded by a wire fence . A brickyard was located just beyond the perimeter fence , 50 metres ( 160 feet ) away . The Velepromet storage facility was turned into a detention camp when the first detainees were brought there on 16 November , during the final days of the Battle of Vukovar , shortly after the JNA captured the Sajmište district . It served as a detention facility where the JNA and various paramilitary groups held Croats before they were transported to prison camps in Serbia or they were executed nearby . The site was within the area of responsibility of the JNA 2nd Assault Detachment , commanded by Major Branislav Lukić , the commanding officer of the JNA garrison in Vukovar , but the camp security was provided by Croatian Serb TO , volunteers and by JNA military police .
After the Battle of Vukovar , the JNA and its allied forces started taking all civilians remaining in Vukovar to the Velepromet camp , transferring them from various shelters elsewhere in the city . About 11 : 00 on 19 November , Cyrus Vance and Herbert S. Okun toured Vukovar on a United Nations fact @-@ finding mission . They were given an escorted tour of several sites in or near the city , including the Velepromet camp , before departing for Belgrade at 13 : 00 .
According to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) prosecutor Carla Del Ponte , there were approximately 2 @,@ 000 people held in the facility on 19 November , including civilians and approximately 800 people detained as prisoners of war by the JNA . Those included several hundred detainees taken from the Vukovar hospital . People transported to the Velepromet camp were then separated based on their ethnicity and suspected ZNG and Croatian police personnel were separated from the others . Colonel Bogdan Vujić of the JNA Counterintelligence Service visited the camp that day and described the conditions there as " inhumane " . The International Committee of the Red Cross was denied access to the Velepromet camp .
Upon arrival at the facility , some of the prisoners were selected for beatings or execution . Survivors reported that some of the detainees were escorted to the brickyard , from which shots could be heard , and those detainees were not seen again . One surviving prisoner later reported that he witnessed the killing of one prisoner in the camp itself , when Serbian paramilitaries slit the victim 's throat in front of detainees . Other prisoners were beaten during interrogations , were shot and wounded , or were otherwise abused . On 19 November , gradual transfer of the detainees to Sremska Mitrovica prison in Serbia started . These transfers caused a clash between Vujić and the Croatian Serb TO , as the latter wanted to keep the detainees under their control .
Detainees were generally kept in the Velepromet camp for three to four days before being transferred to Sremska Mitrovica . It is estimated that up to 10 @,@ 000 civilians and prisoners of war passed through the Velepromet camp before the camp was closed down in March 1992 , when the United Nations Protection Force deployed to the area . According to survivors , up to 800 were killed there , although a large number of those deaths are unconfirmed and many are considered missing . The figure includes 700 missing and presumed dead as of 2009 . Seventeen victims were buried in graves within the detention facility itself . According to the Croatian Government , about 350 inmates did not leave the camp alive . This figure was repeated by Croatian lawyers in March 2014 , during the trial phase of the Croatia – Serbia genocide case before the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) . Serbia 's legal team maintained that the figure of 350 killed is exaggerated , but conceded that crimes had been committed in the camp . Based on the findings of the ICTY , the ICJ found that at least 15 inmates had been killed at Velepromet , but stated that it was impossible for the court to determine the exact number of deaths .
= = Aftermath = =
The events in the Velepromet camp have formed part of three different ICTY indictments . In the trial of Slobodan Milošević , the charges brought against Milošević by the ICTY prosecutors included unlawful confinement , imprisonment , torture and inhumane acts against Croat and other non @-@ Serb civilians , including one hundred detainees held in the Velepromet camp . Milošević died before his trial was completed . Vojislav Šešelj , the leader of the Serb Radical Party , associated with the White Eagles paramilitaries , was charged with the unlawful confinement and killing of at least six people at the Velepromet camp who were buried in a mass grave near the site of the Ovčara massacre , near the village of Grabovo south of Vukovar , as well as an unspecified number of people in the brick yard adjacent to the Velepromet camp . Goran Hadžić , a Croatian Serb policial leader in eastern Slavonia , who held the office of President of SAO Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Syrmia , was charged with the unlawful confinement and murder of the 17 people in Velepromet who were later buried within the compound . As of 2014 , the trials of Šešelj and Hadžić are ongoing .
The site of the Velepromet camp is marked by a commemorative plaque , and there is a wreath @-@ laying ceremony each November at the site . The compound was restored to is original use as a storage facility .
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= Sense and Sensibility ( film ) =
Sense and Sensibility is a 1995 American period drama film directed by Ang Lee and based on Jane Austen 's 1811 novel of the same name . Actress Emma Thompson wrote the script and stars as Elinor Dashwood , while Kate Winslet plays Elinor 's younger sister Marianne . The story follows the Dashwood sisters , members of a wealthy English family of landed gentry , as they must deal with circumstances of sudden destitution . They are forced to seek financial security through marriage . Actors Hugh Grant and Alan Rickman play their respective suitors . The film was released on 13 December 1995 in the United States and on 23 February 1996 in the United Kingdom .
Producer Lindsay Doran , a longtime admirer of Austen 's novel , hired Thompson to write the screenplay . The actress spent five years drafting numerous revisions , continually working on the script between other films as well as into production of the film itself . Studios were nervous that Thompson – a first @-@ time screenwriter – was the credited writer , but Columbia Pictures agreed to distribute the film . Though initially intending to have another actress portray Elinor , Thompson was persuaded to take the role .
Thompson 's screenplay exaggerated the Dashwood family 's wealth to make their later scenes of poverty more apparent to modern audiences . It also altered the traits of the male leads to make them more appealing to contemporary viewers . Elinor and Marianne 's different characteristics were emphasised through imagery and invented scenes . Ang Lee was selected as director , both due to his work in the 1993 film The Wedding Banquet and because Doran believed he would help the film appeal to a wider audience . Lee was given a budget of $ 16 million .
A commercial success , the movie garnered overwhelmingly positive reviews upon release and received many accolades , including three awards and eleven nominations at the 1995 British Academy Film Awards . It earned seven Academy Awards nominations , including for Best Picture and Best Actress . Thompson received the Best Adapted Screenplay , becoming the only person to have won Academy Awards for both acting and screenwriting . Sense and Sensibility contributed to a resurgence in popularity for Austen 's works , and has led to many more productions in similar genres . It persists in being recognised as one of the best Austen adaptations of all time .
= = Plot = =
On his deathbed , Mr. Dashwood ( Tom Wilkinson ) tells his son from his first marriage , John ( James Fleet ) , to take care of his second wife ( Gemma Jones ) and three daughters , Elinor ( Emma Thompson ) , Marianne ( Kate Winslet ) and Margaret ( Emilie François ) , since they will inherit nothing . John 's greedy and snobbish wife Fanny ( Harriet Walter ) convinces him to give his half sisters practically nothing financially ; John and Fanny immediately install themselves in the large house , forcing the Dashwood ladies to look for a new home . Fanny invites her brother Edward Ferrars ( Hugh Grant ) to stay with them . Elinor and Edward soon form a close friendship , but Fanny haughtily tells Mrs. Dashwood that Edward would be disinherited if he married someone of no importance with no money . Mrs. Dashwood understands her meaning completely .
Sir John Middleton ( Robert Hardy ) , a cousin of the widowed Mrs. Dashwood , offers her a small cottage house on his estate , Barton Park in Devonshire . She and her daughters move in , and are frequent guests at Barton Park . The Dashwoods meet the older Colonel Brandon ( Alan Rickman ) , who falls in love with Marianne at first sight . However , Marianne considers him an old bachelor , incapable of feeling love or inspiring it in another .
One afternoon , Marianne takes a walk with Margaret and slips and falls in the rain . She is carried home by the dashing John Willoughby ( Greg Wise ) , with whom Marianne falls in love . They spend a great deal of time together , but on the morning she expects him to propose marriage to her , he instead leaves hurriedly for London . Unbeknownst to the Dashwood family , Brandon 's ward Beth , the illegitimate daughter of his former love Eliza , is pregnant with Willoughby 's child . Willoughby 's aunt Lady Allen disinherited him upon discovering this .
Sir John 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Mrs. Jennings ( Elizabeth Spriggs ) , invites her daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , Mr. and Mrs. Palmer ( Hugh Laurie and Imelda Staunton ) , to visit . They bring with them the impoverished Lucy Steele ( Imogen Stubbs ) . Lucy confides in Elinor that she and Edward have been engaged secretly for five years , dashing Elinor 's hopes of a future with him . Mrs. Jennings takes Lucy , Elinor , and Marianne to London , where they meet Willoughby at a ball . He greets Marianne uncomfortably and barely acknowledges their acquaintance , and they soon learn he is engaged to the extremely wealthy Miss Grey . Marianne becomes inconsolable .
Lucy is invited to stay with John and Fanny , as a way for Fanny to avoid inviting the Dashwood sisters to visit them . Lucy , falsely believing that she has a friend in Fanny , confides her clandestine engagement to Edward and is thrown out of the house . Edward 's mother demands that he break off the engagement . When he refuses , she arranges to have his fortune transferred to his younger brother , Robert ( Richard Lumsden ) . On hearing this , Colonel Brandon offers Edward the living of the parish on his estate , feeling sympathy for the unfortunate but honorable Edward .
On their way home to Devonshire , Elinor and Marianne stop for the night at the country estate of the Palmers , who live five and a half miles away from Willoughby 's estate . Marianne cannot resist going to see the estate ; she becomes gravely ill trekking up a hill in a torrential rain . Colonel Brandon finds her in the rain and brings her home . Elinor stays at her side until she recovers , and the sisters return home . Colonel Brandon and Marianne begin spending time together , as Marianne has a new appreciation for him . She admits to Elinor that even if Willoughby had chosen her , she was no longer convinced that love would have been enough to make him happy .
The Dashwoods soon learn that Miss Steele has become Mrs. Ferrars and assume that she is married to Edward . Later when Edward visits their house , they learn that Miss Steele unexpectedly jilted him in favor of his brother Robert , and Edward is thus released from his engagement . Edward proposes to and marries Elinor . Edward becomes a vicar , under the patronage of Colonel Brandon , whom Marianne marries . Willoughby is seen forlornly watching their wedding from a distance , and then rides away .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
In 1989 , Lindsay Doran , the new president of production company Mirage Enterprises , was on a company retreat brainstorming potential film ideas when she suggested the Jane Austen novel Sense and Sensibility to her colleagues . It had been adapted three times , most recently in a 1981 television serial . Doran was a longtime fan of the novel , and had vowed in her youth to adapt it if she ever entered the film industry . She chose to adapt this particular Austen work because there were two female leads . Doran stated that " all of [ Austen 's ] books are funny and emotional , but Sense and Sensibility is the best movie story because it 's full of twists and turns . Just when you think you know what 's going on , everything is different . It 's got real suspense , but it 's not a thriller . Irresistible . " She also praised the novel for possessing " wonderful characters ... three strong love stories , surprising plot twists , good jokes , relevant themes , and a heart @-@ stopping ending . "
Prior to being hired at Mirage , the producer had spent years looking for a suitable screenwriter – someone who was " equally strong in the areas of satire and romance " and could think in Austen 's language " almost as naturally as he or she could think in the language of the twentieth century . " Doran read screenplays by English and American writers until she came across a series of comedic skits , often in period settings , that actress Emma Thompson had written . Doran believed the humour and style of writing was " exactly what [ she 'd ] been searching for . " Thompson and Doran were already working together on Mirage 's 1991 film Dead Again . A week after its completion , the producer selected Thompson to adapt Sense and Sensibility , although she knew that Thompson had never written a screenplay . Also a fan of Austen , Thompson first suggested they adapt Persuasion or Emma before agreeing to Doran 's proposal . The actress found that Sense and Sensibility contained more action than she had remembered , and decided it would translate well to drama .
Thompson spent five years writing and revising the screenplay , both during and between shooting other films . Believing the novel 's language to be " far more arcane than in [ Austen 's ] later books , " Thompson sought to simplify the dialogue while retaining the " elegance and wit of the original . " She observed that in a screenwriting process , a first draft often had " a lot of good stuff in it " but needed to be edited , and second drafts would " almost certainly be rubbish ... because you get into a panic . " Thompson credits Doran for " help [ ing ] me , nourish [ ing ] me and mentor [ ing ] me through that process ... I learned about screenwriting at her feet . "
Thompson 's first draft was more than three hundred handwritten pages , which required her to reduce it to a more manageable length . She found the romances to be the most difficult to " juggle " , and her draft received some criticism for the way it presented Willoughby and Edward . Doran later recalled the work was criticized for not getting underway until Willoughby 's arrival , with Edward sidelined as backstory . Thompson and Doran quickly realised that " if we didn 't meet Edward and do the work and take that twenty minutes to set up those people ... then it wasn 't going to work . " At the same time , Thompson wished to avoid depicting " a couple of women waiting around for men " ; gradually her screenplay focused as much on the Dashwood sisters ' relationship with each other as it did with their romantic interests .
With the draft screenplay , Doran pitched the idea to various studios in order to finance the film , but found that many were wary of the beginner Thompson as the screenwriter . She was considered a risk , as her experience was as an actress who had never written a film script . Columbia Pictures executive Amy Pascal supported Thompson 's work , and agreed to sign as the producer and distributor .
As Thompson mentioned on the BBC program QI in 2009 , at one point in the writing process a laptop failure almost lost the entire work . In panic Thompson called fellow actor and close friend Stephen Fry , the host of QI and a self @-@ professed " geek " . After seven hours , Fry was able to recover the documents from the device .
= = = = Lee 's hire = = = =
Taiwanese director Ang Lee was hired as a result of his work in the 1993 family comedy film The Wedding Banquet , which he co @-@ wrote , produced , and directed . He was not familiar with the author Austen . Doran felt that Lee 's films , which depicted complex family relationships amidst a social comedy context , were a good fit with Austen 's storylines . She recalled , " The idea of a foreign director was intellectually appealing even though it was very scary to have someone who didn 't have English as his first language . " The producer sent Lee a copy of Thompson 's script , to which he replied that he was " cautiously interested " . Fifteen directors were interviewed , but according to Doran , Lee was one of the few who recognised Austen 's humour ; he told them he wanted the film to " break people 's hearts so badly that they 'll still be recovering from it two months later . "
From the beginning , Doran wanted Sense and Sensibility to appeal to both a core audience of Austen aficionados as well as younger viewers attracted to romantic comedy films . She felt that Lee 's involvement prevented the film from becoming " just some little English movie " that appealed only to local audiences instead of to the wider world . Lee said ,
" I thought they were crazy : I was brought up in Taiwan , what do I know about 19th @-@ century England ? About halfway through the script it started to make sense why they chose me . In my films I 've been trying to mix social satire and family drama . I realised that all along I had been trying to do Jane Austen without knowing it . Jane Austen was my destiny . I just had to overcome the cultural barrier . "
Because Thompson and Doran had worked on the screenplay for so long , Lee described himself at the time as a " director for hire " , as he was unsure of his role and position . He spent six months in England " learn [ ing ] how to make this movie , how to do a period film , culturally ... and how to adapt to the major league film industry . "
In January 1995 , Thompson presented a draft to Lee , Doran , co @-@ producer Laurie Borg , and others working on the production , and spent the next two months editing the screenplay based upon their feedback . Thompson would continue making revisions throughout production of the film , including altering scenes to meet budgetary concerns , adding dialogue changes , and changing certain aspects to better fit the actors . Brandon 's confession scene , for instance , initially included flashbacks and stylised imagery before Thompson decided it was " emotionally more interesting to let Brandon tell the story himself and find it difficult . "
= = = Casting = = =
Thompson initially hoped that Doran would cast sisters Natasha and Joely Richardson as Elinor and Marianne Dashwood . Lee and Columbia wanted Thompson herself , now a " big @-@ deal movie star " after her critically successful role in the 1992 film Howards End , to play Elinor . The actress replied that at the age of thirty @-@ five , she was too old for the nineteen @-@ year @-@ old character . Lee suggested Elinor 's age be changed to twenty @-@ seven , which would also have made the difficult reality of spinsterhood easier for modern audiences to understand . Thompson agreed , later stating that she was " desperate to get into a corset and act it and stop thinking about it as a script . "
The formal casting process began in February 1995 , though some of the actors met with Thompson the previous year to help her conceptualise the script . Lee eventually cast all but one of them : Hugh Grant ( as Edward Ferrars ) , Robert Hardy ( as Sir John Middleton ) , Harriet Walter ( as Fanny Ferrars Dashwood ) , Imelda Staunton ( as Charlotte Jennings Palmer ) , and Hugh Laurie ( as Mr. Palmer ) . Amanda Root had also worked with Thompson on the screenplay , but had already committed to star in the 1995 film Persuasion . Commenting on the casting of Laurie , whom she had known for years , Thompson has said , " There is no one [ else ] on the planet who could capture Mr. Palmer 's disenchantment and redemption so perfectly , and make it funny . "
Thompson wrote the part of Edward Ferrars with Grant in mind , and he agreed to receive a lower salary in line with the film 's budget . Grant called her screenplay " genius " , explaining " I 've always been a philistine about Jane Austen herself , and I think Emma 's script is miles better than the book and much more amusing . " Grant 's casting was criticised by the Jane Austen Society of North America ( JASNA ) , whose representatives said that he was too handsome for the part . Actress Kate Winslet initially intended to audition for the role of Marianne but Lee disliked her work in the 1994 drama film Heavenly Creatures ; she auditioned for the lesser part of Lucy Steele . Winslet pretended she had heard that the audition was still for Marianne , and won the part based on a single reading . Thompson later said that Winslet , only nineteen years old , approached the part " energised and open , realistic , intelligent , and tremendous fun . " The role helped Winslet become recognised as a significant actress .
Also appearing in the film was Alan Rickman , who portrayed Colonel Brandon . Thompson was pleased that Rickman could express the " extraordinary sweetness [ of ] his nature , " as he had played " Machiavellian types so effectively " in other films . Greg Wise was cast as Marianne 's other romantic interest , John Willoughby , his most noted role thus far . Twelve @-@ year @-@ old Emilie François , appearing as Margaret Dashwood , was one of the last people cast in the production ; she had no professional acting experience . Thompson praised the young actress in her production diaries , " Emilie has a natural quick intelligence that informs every movement – she creates spontaneity in all of us just by being there . " Other cast members included Gemma Jones as Mrs. Dashwood , James Fleet as John Dashwood , Elizabeth Spriggs as Mrs. Jennings , Imogen Stubbs as Lucy Steele , Richard Lumsden as Robert Ferrars , Tom Wilkinson as Mr. Dashwood , and Lone Vidahl as Miss Grey .
= = = Costume design = = =
According to Austen scholar Linda Troost , the costumes used in Sense and Sensibility helped emphasise the class and status of the various characters , particularly among the Dashwoods . They were created by Jenny Beavan and John Bright , a team of designers best known for Merchant Ivory films who began working together in 1984 . The two attempted to create accurate period dress , and featured the " fuller , classical look and colours of the late 18th century . " They found inspiration in the works of the English artists Thomas Rowlandson , John Hopper , and George Romney , and also reviewed fashion plates stored in the Victoria and Albert Museum . The main costumes and hats were manufactured at Cosprop , a London @-@ based costumer company .
To achieve the tightly wound curls fashionably inspired by Greek art , some of the actresses wore wigs while others employed heated hair twists and slept in pin curls . Fanny , the snobbiest of the characters , possesses the tightest of curls but has less of a Greek silhouette , a reflection of her wealth and silliness . Beavan stated that Fanny and Mrs. Jennings " couldn 't quite give up the frills , " and instead draped themselves in lace , fur , feathers , jewellery , and rich fabrics . Conversely , sensible Elinor opts for simpler accessories , such as a long gold chain and a straw hat . Fanny 's shallow personality is also reflected in " flashy , colourful " dresses , while Edward 's buttoned @-@ up appearance represents his " repressed " personality , with little visible skin . Each of the 100 extras used in the London ballroom scene , depicting " soldiers and lawyers to fops and dowagers , " don visually distinct costumes .
For Brandon 's costumes , Beavan and Bright consulted with Thompson and Lee and decided to have him project an image of " experienced and dependable masculinity . " Brandon is first seen in black , but later he wears sporting gear in the form of corduroy jackets and shirtsleeves . His rescue of Marianne has him transforming into the " romantic Byronic hero " , sporting an unbuttoned shirt and loose cravat . In conjunction with his tragic backstory , Brandon 's " flattering " costumes help his appeal to the audience . Beavan and Bright 's work on the film earned them a nomination for Best Costume Design at the 68th Academy Awards .
= = = Filming = = =
The film was budgeted at $ 16 million , the largest Ang Lee had yet received as well as the largest awarded to an Austen film that decade . In the wake of the success of Columbia 's 1994 film Little Women , the American studio authorised Lee 's " relatively high budget " out of an expectation that it would be another cross @-@ over hit and appeal to multiple audiences , thus yielding high box office returns . Nevertheless , Doran considered it a " low budget film " and many of the ideas Thompson and Lee came up with – such as an early dramatic scene depicting Mr. Dashwood 's bloody fall from a horse – were deemed unfilmable from a cost perspective .
According to Thompson , Lee " arrived on set with the whole movie in his head " . Rather than focus on period details , he wanted his film to concentrate on telling a good story . He showed the cast a selection of films adapted from classic novels , including Barry Lyndon and The Age of Innocence , which he believed to be " great movies ; everybody worships the art work , [ but ] it 's not what we want to do . " Lee criticised the latter film for lacking energy , in contrast to the " passionate tale " of Sense and Sensibility .
The cast and crew experienced " slight culture shock " with Lee on a number of occasions . He expected the assistant directors to be the " tough ones " and keep production on schedule , while they expected the same of him ; this led to a slower schedule in the early stages of production . Additionally , according to Thompson the director became " deeply hurt and confused " when she and Grant made suggestions for certain scenes , which was something that was not done in his native country . Lee thought his authority was being undermined and lost sleep , though this was gradually resolved as he became used to their methods . The cast " grew to trust his instincts so completely , " making fewer and fewer suggestions . Co @-@ producer James Schamus stated that Lee also adapted by becoming more verbal and willing to express his opinion .
Lee became known for his " frightening " tendency to not " mince words " . The director often had his cast do numerous takes for a scene in order to get the perfect shot , and was not afraid to call something " boring " if he disliked it . Thompson later recalled the director would " always come up to you and say something unexpectedly crushing " , such as asking her not to " look so old . " She also commented , however , that " he doesn 't indulge us but is always kind when we fail . " Due to Thompson 's extensive acting experience , the director encouraged her to practice t 'ai chi to " help her relax [ and ] make her do things simpler . " Other actors soon joined them in meditating – according to Doran , it " was pretty interesting . There were all these pillows on the floor and these pale @-@ looking actors were saying , ' What have we got ourselves into ? ' [ Lee ] was more focused on body language than any director I 've ever seen or heard of . " He suggested Winslet read books of poetry and report back to him in order to best understand her character . He also had Thompson and Winslet live together to develop their characters ' sisterly bond . Many of the cast took lessons in etiquette and riding side @-@ saddle .
Lee found that in contrast to Chinese cinema , he had to dissuade many of the actors from using a " very stagy , very English tradition . Instead of just being observed like a human being and getting sympathy , they feel they have to do things , they have to carry the movie . " Grant in particular often had to be restrained from giving an " over @-@ the @-@ top " performance ; Lee later recalled that the actor is " a show stealer . You can 't stop that . I let him do , I have to say , less ' star ' stuff , the Hugh Grant thing ... and not [ let ] the movie serve him , which is probably what he 's used to now . " For the scene in which Elinor learns Edward is unmarried , Thompson found inspiration from her reaction to her father 's death . Grant had been unaware that Thompson would cry through most of his speech , and the actress attempted to reassure him , " ' There 's no other way , and I promise you it 'll work , and it will be funny as well as being touching . ' And he said , ' Oh , all right , ' and he was very good about it " . Lee had one demand for the scene , that Thompson avoid the temptation to turn her head towards the camera .
= = = = Locations = = = =
Production of Sense and Sensibility was scheduled for fifty @-@ eight days , though this was eventually extended to sixty @-@ five . Filming commenced in mid @-@ April 1995 at a number of locations in Devon , beginning with Saltram House ( standing in for Norland Park ) , where Winslet and Jones shot the first scene of the production : when their characters read about Barton Cottage . As Saltram was a National Trust property , Schamus had to sign a contract before production began , and staff with the organisation remained on set to carefully monitor the filming . Production later returned to shoot several more scenes , finishing there on 29 April . The second location of filming , Flete House , stood in for part of Mrs. Jennings ' London estate , where Edward first sees Elinor with Lucy . Representing Barton Cottage was a Flete Estate stone cottage , which Thompson called " one of the most beautiful spots we 've ever seen . "
Early May saw production at the " exquisite " village church in Berry Pomeroy for the final wedding scene . From the tenth to the twelfth of May , Marianne 's first rescue sequence , depicting her encounter with Willoughby , was shot . Logistics were difficult , as the scene was set upon a hill during a rainy day . Lee shot around fifty takes , with the actors becoming soaked under rain machines ; this led to Winslet eventually collapsing from hypothermia . Further problems occurred midway through filming , when Winslet contracted phlebitis in her leg , developed a limp , and sprained her wrist after falling down a staircase .
From May to July , production took place at a number of other National Trust estates and stately homes across England . Trafalgar House and Wilton House in Wiltshire stood in for the grounds of Barton Park and the London Ballroom respectively . Mompesson House , an eighteenth @-@ century townhouse located in Salisbury , represented Mrs. Jennings ' sumptuous townhouse . Sixteenth @-@ century Montacute House in South Somerset was the setting for the Palmer estate of Cleveland House . Further scenes were shot at Compton Castle in Devon ( Mr Willoughby 's estate ) and at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich .
= = = Music = = =
Composer Patrick Doyle , who had previously worked with his friend Emma Thompson in the films Henry V , Much Ado About Nothing , and Dead Again , was hired to produce the music for Sense and Sensibility . Asked by the director to select existing music or compose new " gentle " melodies , Doyle wrote a score that reflected the film 's events . He explained , " You had this middle @-@ class English motif , and with the music you would have occasional outbursts of emotion . " Doyle explains that the score " becomes a little more grown @-@ up " as the story progresses to one of " maturity and an emotional catharsis . " The score contains romantic elements and has been described by National Public Radio as a " restricted compass ... of emotion " with " instruments [ that ] blend together in a gentle sort of way " . They also noted that as a reflection of the story , the score is a " little wistful ... and sentimental . "
Two songs are sung by Marianne in the film , with lyrics adapted from seventeenth @-@ century poems . Lee believed that the two songs conveyed the " vision of duality " visible both in the novel and script . In his opinion , the second song expressed Marianne 's " mature acceptance , " intertwined with a " sense of melancholy " . The melody of " Weep You No More Sad Fountains " , Marianne 's first song , appears in the opening credits , while her second song 's melody features again during the ending credits , this time sung by dramatic soprano Jane Eaglen . The songs were written by Doyle before filming began . The composer received his first Academy Award nomination for his score .
= = = Editing = = =
Thompson and Doran discussed how much of the love stories to depict , as the male characters spend much of the novel away from the Dashwood sisters . The screenwriter had to carefully balance the amount of screentime she gave to the male leads , noting in her film production diary that such a decision would " very much lie in the editing . " Thompson wrote " hundreds of different versions " of romantic storylines . She considered having Edward re @-@ appear midway through the film before deciding that it would not work as " there was nothing for him to do . " Thompson also opted to exclude the duel scene between Brandon and Willoughby , which is described in the novel , because it " only seemed to subtract from the mystery . " She and Doran agonised about when and how to reveal Brandon 's backstory , as they wanted to prevent viewers from becoming bored . Thompson described the process of reminding audiences of Edward and Brandon as " keeping plates spinning " .
A scene was shot of Brandon finding his ward in a poverty @-@ stricken area in London , but this was excluded from the film . Thompson 's script included a scene of Elinor and Edward kissing , as the studio " couldn 't stand the idea of these two people who we 've been watching all the way through not kissing . " It was one of the first scenes cut during editing : the original version was over three hours , Lee was less interested in the story 's romance , and Thompson found a kissing scene to be inappropriate . The scene was included in marketing materials and the film trailer . Thompson and Doran also cut out a scene depicting Willoughby as remorseful when Marianne is sick . Doran said that despite it " being one of the great scenes in book history , " they could not get it to fit into the film .
Tim Squyres edited the film , his fourth collaboration with Ang Lee . He reflected in 2013 about the editing process ,
" It was the first film that I had done with Ang that was all in English , and it 's Emma Thompson , Kate Winslet , Alan Rickman , and Hugh Grant — these great , great actors . When you get footage like that , you realise that your job is really not technical . It was my job to look at something that Emma Thompson had done and say , ' Eh , that 's not good , I 'll use this other one instead . ' And not only was I allowed to pass judgment on these tremendous actors , I was required to . "
= = Themes and analysis = =
= = = Changes from source material = = =
Scholar Louise Flavin has noted that Thompson 's screenplay contains significant alterations to the characters of Elinor and Marianne Dashwood : in the novel , the former embodies " sense " , i.e. " sensible " in our terms , and the latter , " sensibility " , i.e. " sensitivity " in our terms . Audience members are meant to view self @-@ restrained Elinor as the person in need of reform , rather than her impassioned sister . To heighten the contrast between them , Marianne and Willoughby 's relationship includes an " erotic " invented scene in which the latter requests a lock of her hair – a direct contrast to Elinor 's " reserved relationship " with Edward . Lee also distinguishes them through imagery – Marianne is often seen with musical instruments , near open windows , and outside , while Elinor is pictured in door frames . Another character altered for modern viewers is Margaret Dashwood , who conveys " the frustrations that a girl of our times might feel at the limitations facing her as a woman in the early nineteenth century . " Thompson uses Margaret for exposition in order to detail contemporary attitudes and customs . For instance , Elinor explains to a curious Margaret – and by extension , the audience – why their half @-@ brother inherits the Dashwood estate . Margaret 's altered storyline , giving her an interest in fencing and geography , also allows audience members to see the " feminine " side of Edward and Brandon , as they become father or brother figures to her . The film omits the characters of Lady Middleton and her children , as well as that of Ann Steele , Lucy 's sister .
When adapting the characters for film , Thompson found that in the novel , " Edward and Brandon are quite shadowy and absent for long periods , " and that " making the male characters effective was one of the biggest problems . Willoughby is really the only male who springs out in three dimensions . " Several major male characters in Sense and Sensibility were consequently altered significantly from the novel in an effort to appeal to contemporary audiences . Grant 's Edward and Rickman 's Brandon are " ideal " modern males who display an obvious love of children as well as " pleasing manners " , especially when contrasted with Palmer . Thompson 's script both expanded and omitted scenes from Edward 's storyline , including the deletion of an early scene in which Elinor assumes that a lock of hair found in Edward 's possession is hers , when it belongs to Lucy . He was made more fully realised and honourable than in the novel to increase his appeal to viewers . To gradually show viewers why Brandon is worthy of Marianne 's love , Thompson 's screenplay has his storyline mirroring Willoughby 's ; they are similar in appearance , share a love of music and poetry , and rescue Marianne in the rain while on horseback .
= = = Class = = =
Thompson viewed the novel as a story of " love and money , " noting that some people needed one more than the other . During the writing process , executive producer Sydney Pollack stressed that the film be understandable to modern audiences , and that it be made clear why the Dashwood sisters could not just obtain a job . " I 'm from Indiana ; if I get it , everyone gets it , " he said . Thompson believed that Austen was just as comprehensible in a different century , " You don 't think people are still concerned with marriage , money , romance , finding a partner ? " She was keen to emphasise the realism of the Dashwoods ' predicament in her screenplay , and inserted scenes to make the differences in wealth more apparent to modern audiences . Thompson made the Dashwood family richer than in the book and added elements to help contrast their early wealth with their later financial predicament ; for instance , because it might have been confusing to viewers that one could be poor and still have servants , Elinor is made to address a large group of servants at Norland Park early in the film for viewers to remember when they see their few staff at Barton Cottage . Lee also sought to emphasise social class and the limitations it placed on the protagonists . Lee conveys this in part when Willoughby publicly rejects Marianne ; he returns to a more lavishly furnished room , a symbol of the wealth she has lost . " Family dramas , " he stated , " are all about conflict , about family obligations versus free will . "
The film 's theme of class has attracted much scholarly attention . Carole Dole noted that class constitutes an important element in Austen 's stories and is " impossible " to avoid when adapting her novels . According to Dole , Lee 's film contains an " ambiguous treatment of class values " that stresses social differences but " underplays the consequences of the class distinctions so important in the novel " ; for instance , Edward 's story ends upon his proposal to Elinor , with no attention paid to how they will live on his small annual income from the vicarage . Louise Flavin believed that Lee used the houses to represent their occupants ' class and character : the Dashwood sisters ' decline in eligibility are represented through the contrast between the spacious rooms of Norland Park and those of the isolated , cramped Barton Cottage . James Thompson criticised what he described as the anaesthetised " mélange of disconnected picture postcard @-@ gift @-@ calendar @-@ perfect scenes , " in which little connection is made between " individual subjects and the land that supports them . " Andrew Higson argued that while Sense and Sensibility includes commentary on sex and gender , it fails to pursue issues of class . Thompson 's script , he wrote , displays a " sense of impoverishment [ but is ] confined to the still privileged lifestyle of the disinherited Dashwoods . The broader class system is pretty much taken for granted . " The ending visual image of flying gold coins , depicted during Marianne 's wedding , has also drawn attention ; Marsha McCreadie noted that it serves as a " visual wrap @-@ up and emblem of the merger between money and marriage . "
= = = Gender = = =
Gender has been seen as another major theme of the film , often intersecting with class . Penny Gay observed that Elinor 's early dialogue with Edward about " feel [ ing ] idle and useless ... [ with ] no hope whatsoever of any occupation " reflected Thompson 's background as a " middle class , Cambridge @-@ educated feminist . " Conversely , Dole wrote that Thompson 's version of Elinor " has a surprising anti @-@ feminist element to it , " as she appears more dependent on men than the original character ; the film presents her as repressed , resulting in her emotional breakdown with Edward . Linda Troost opined that Lee 's production prominently features " radical feminist and economic issues " while " paradoxically endorsing the conservative concept of marriage as a woman 's goal in life . " Despite this " mixed political agenda , " Troost believed that the film 's faithfulness to the traditional heritage film genre is evident through its use of locations , costumes , and attention to details , all of which also emphasize class and status . Gay and Julianne Pidduck stated that gender differences are expressed by showing the female characters indoors , while their male counterparts are depicted outside confidently moving throughout the countryside . Nora Stovel observed that Thompson " emphasises Austen ’ s feminist satire on Regency gender economics , " drawing attention not only to the financial plight of the Dashwoods but also to eighteenth @-@ century women in general .
= = Marketing and release = =
In the United States , Sony and Columbia Pictures released Sense and Sensibility on a slow schedule compared to mainstream films , first premiering it on 13 December 1995 . Believing that a limited release would position the film both as an " exclusive quality picture " and increase its chances of winning Academy Awards , Columbia dictated that its first weekend involve only seventy cinemas in the US ; it opened in eleventh place in terms of box office takings and earned $ 721 @,@ 341 . To benefit from the publicity surrounding potential Academy Award candidates and increase its chance of earning nominations , the film was released within " Oscar season " . The number of theatres showing Sense and Sensibility was slowly expanded , with particular surges when its seven Oscar nominations were announced and at the time of the ceremony in late March , until it was present in over one thousand cinemas across the US . By the end of its American release , Sense and Sensibility had been watched by more than eight million people , garnering an " impressive " total domestic gross of $ 43 @,@ 182 @,@ 776 .
On the basis of Austen 's reputation as a serious author , the producers were able to rely on high @-@ brow publications to help market their film . Near the time of its US release , large spreads in The New York Review of Books , Vanity Fair , Film Comment , and other media outlets featured columns on Lee 's production . In late December , Time magazine declared it and Persuasion to be the best films of 1995 . Andrew Higson referred to all this media exposure as a " marketing coup " because it meant the film " was reaching one of its target audiences . " Meanwhile , most promotional images featured the film as a " sort of chick flick in period garb . " New Market Press published Thompson 's screenplay and film diary ; in its first printing , the hard cover edition sold 28 @,@ 500 copies in the US . British publisher Bloomsbury released a paperback edition of the novel containing film pictures , same title design , and the cast 's names on the cover , whilst Signet Publishing in the US printed 250 @,@ 000 copies instead of the typical 10 @,@ 000 a year ; actress Julie Christie read the novel in an audiobook released by Penguin Audiobooks . Sense and Sensibility increased dramatically in terms of its book sales , ultimately hitting tenth place on the The New York Times Best Seller list for paperbacks in February 1996 .
In the United Kingdom , Sense and Sensibility was released on 23 February 1996 in order to " take advantage of the hype from Pride and Prejudice " , another popular Austen adaptation recently broadcast . Columbia Tristar 's head of UK marketing noted that " if there was any territory this film was going to work , it was in the UK . " After receiving positive responses at previews , marketing strategies focused on selling it as both a costume drama and as a film attractive to mainstream audiences . Attention was also paid to marketing Sense and Sensibility internationally . Because the entire production cycle had consistently emphasised it as being " bigger " than a normal British period drama literary film , distributors avoided labelling it as " just another English period film . " Instead , marketing materials featured quotations from populist newspapers such as the Daily Mail , which compared the film to Four Weddings and a Funeral ( 1994 ) . It was watched by more than ten million viewers in Europe . Worldwide , the film ultimately grossed $ 134 @,@ 582 @,@ 776 , a sum that reflected its commercial success . It had the largest box office gross out of the Austen adaptations of the 1990s .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Sense and Sensibility has received overwhelmingly positive reviews from film critics , and was included on more than a hundred top @-@ ten of the year lists . Writing for Variety magazine , Todd McCarthy observed that the film 's success was assisted by its " highly skilled cast of actors , " as well as its choice of Lee as director . McCarthy clarified , " Although [ Lee 's ] previously revealed talents for dramatizing conflicting social and generational traditions will no doubt be noted , Lee 's achievement here with such foreign material is simply well beyond what anyone could have expected and may well be posited as the cinematic equivalent of Kazuo Ishiguro writing The Remains of the Day . "
Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle lauded the film for containing a sense of urgency " that keeps the pedestrian problems of an unremarkable 18th century family immediate and personal . " LaSalle concluded that the adaptation has a " right balance of irony and warmth . The result is a film of great understanding and emotional clarity , filmed with an elegance that never calls attention to itself . " Film critic John Simon praised most of the film , particularly focusing on Thompson 's performance , though he criticised Grant for being " much too adorably bumbling ... he urgently needs to chasten his onscreen persona , and stop hunching his shoulders like a dromedary . "
In The Mail on Sunday , William Leith found Sense and Sensibility to be " an extremely sharp , subtle , clever , lovely looking film " that was superior to the serial Pride and Prejudice . Leith especially saved praise for the cast , writing that Grant plays his role " masterfully " and Harriet Walter " conveys sour bitchiness like you never thought she could . " Jarr Carr of The Boston Globe thought that Lee " nail [ ed ] Austen 's acute social observation and tangy satire , " and viewed Thompson and Winslet 's age discrepancy as a positive element that helped feed the dichotomy of sense and sensibility . The Radio Times ' David Parkinson was equally appreciative of Lee 's direction , writing that he " avoid [ s ] the chocolate @-@ box visuals that cheapen so many British costume dramas " and " brings a refreshing period realism to the tale of two sisters that allows Emma Thompson 's respectful Oscar @-@ winning script to flourish . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Out of the 1990s Austen adaptations , Sense and Sensibility received the most recognition from Hollywood . It garnered seven nominations at the 68th Academy Awards ceremony , where Thompson received the Award for Best Adapted Screenplay , making her the only person to have won an Oscar for both her writing and acting ( Thompson won the Best Actress award for Howards End , in 1993 ) . The film also was the recipient of twelve nominations at the 49th British Academy Film Awards , including Best Film , Best Actress in a Leading Role ( for Thompson ) , and Best Actress in a Supporting Role ( for Winslet ) . In addition , the film won the Golden Bear at the 46th Berlin International Film Festival , making Lee the first director to win this twice .
Despite the recognition given to the film , Lee was not nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director ( though he was nominated for the Golden Globe ) . The scholar Shu @-@ mei Shih and the journalist Clarence Page have attributed this snub to Hollywood 's racism against Lee , and Chinese cinema in general . Lee sought to avoid turning his omission into a scandal and specifically asked the Taiwan state media not to make it a " national issue , " explaining that he endured more pressure when forced to act as his country 's representative .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Following the theatrical release of Persuasion by a few months , Sense and Sensibility was one of the first English @-@ language period adaptations of an Austen novel to be released in cinemas in over fifty years , the previous being the 1940 film Pride and Prejudice . The year 1995 saw a resurgence of popularity for Austen 's works , as Sense and Sensibility and the serial Pride and Prejudice both rocketed to critical and financial success . The two adaptations helped draw more attention to the previously little @-@ known 1995 television film Persuasion , and led to additional Austen adaptations in the following years . In 1995 and 1996 , six Austen adaptations were released onto film or television . The filming of these productions led to a surge in popularity of many of the landmarks and locations depicted ; according to the scholar Sue Parrill , they became " instant meccas for viewers . "
When Sense and Sensibility was released in cinemas in the US , Town & Country published a six @-@ page article entitled " Jane Austen 's England " , which focused on the landscape and sites shown in the film . A press book released by the studio , as well as Thompson 's published screenplay and diaries , listed all the filming locations and helped to boost tourism . Saltram House for instance was carefully promoted during the film 's release , and saw a 57 percent increase in attendance . In 1996 , JASNA 's membership increased by fifty percent . The popularity of both Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice led to the BBC and ITV releasing their Austen adaptations from the 1970s and 1980s onto DVD .
As the mid @-@ 1990s included adaptations of four Austen novels , there were few of her works to adapt . Andrew Higson argued that this resulted in a " variety of successors " in the genres of romantic comedy and costume drama , as well as with films featuring strong female characters . Cited examples included Mrs Dalloway ( 1997 ) , Mrs. Brown ( 1997 ) , Shakespeare in Love ( 1998 ) , and Bridget Jones 's Diary ( 2001 ) . In 2008 , Andrew Davies , the screenwriter of Pride and Prejudice , adapted Sense and Sensibility for television . As a reaction to what he said was Lee 's overly " sentimental " film , this production featured events found in the novel but excluded from Thompson 's screenplay , such as Willoughby 's seduction of Eliza and his duel with Brandon . It also featured actors closer to the ages in the source material .
Sense and Sensibility has maintained its popularity into the twenty @-@ first century . In 2004 , Louise Flavin referred to the 1995 film as " the most popular of the Austen film adaptations , " and in 2008 , The Independent ranked it as the third @-@ best Austen adaptation of all time , opining that Lee " offered an acute outsider 's insight into Austen in this compelling 1995 interpretation of the book [ and ] Emma Thompson delivered a charming turn as the older , wiser , Dashwood sister , Elinor . " Journalist Zoe Williams credits Thompson as the person most responsible for Austen 's popularity , explaining in 2007 that Sense and Sensibility " is the definitive Austen film and that 's largely down to her . " In 2011 , The Guardian film critic Paul Laity named it his favourite film of all time , partly because of its " exceptional screenplay , crisply and skilfully done . " . Devoney Looser reflected on the film in The Atlantic on the 20th anniversary of its release , arguing that the film served as " a turning point " for " pro @-@ feminist masculinity " in Austen adaptations .
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= Sourav Ganguly =
Sourav Chandidas Ganguly ( pronunciation ; born 8 July 1972 ) , affectionately known as Dada ( meaning " elder brother " in Bengali ) , is a former Indian cricketer and captain of the Indian national team . Currently , he is appointed as the honourable President of the CAB and President of the Editorial Board with Wisden India .
Ganguly was introduced into the world of cricket by his elder brother Snehasish . He is regarded as one of India 's most successful captains in modern times , and one of the greatest ODI batsmen of all time . He started his career by playing in state and school teams . Currently , he is the 8th highest run scorer in One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) and was the 3rd batsman in history to cross the 10 @,@ 000 run landmark , after Sachin Tendulkar and Inzamam Ul Haq . In 2002 , the Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack ranked him the sixth greatest ODI batsman of all time , next to Viv Richards , Sachin Tendulkar , Brian Lara , Dean Jones and Michael Bevan .
After playing in different Indian domestic tournaments , such as the Ranji and Duleep trophies , Ganguly got his big @-@ break while playing for India on their tour of England . He scored 131 runs and cemented his place in the Indian team . Ganguly 's place in the team was assured after successful performances in series against Sri Lanka , Pakistan and Australia , winning the Man of the Match awards . In the 1999 Cricket World Cup , he was involved in a partnership of 318 runs with Rahul Dravid , which remains the highest overall partnership score in the World Cup tournament history . Due to the match @-@ fixing scandals in 2000 by other players of the team , and for his poor health , Indian captain Sachin Tendulkar resigned his position , and Ganguly was made the captain of the Indian cricket team . He was soon the subject of media criticism after an unsuccessful stint for county side Durham and for taking off his shirt in the final of the 2002 NatWest Series . He led India into the 2003 World Cup final , where they were defeated by Australia . Due to a decrease in individual performance , he was dropped from the team in the following year . Ganguly was awarded the Padma Shri in 2004 , one of India 's highest civilian awards . He returned to the National team in 2006 , and made successful batting displays . Around this time , he became involved in a dispute with Indian team coach Greg Chappell over several misunderstandings . Ganguly was again dropped from the team , however he was selected to play in the 2007 Cricket World Cup .
Ganguly joined the Kolkata Knight Riders team as captain for the Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket tournament in 2008 . The same year , after a home Test series against Australia , he announced his retirement from international cricket . He continued to play for the Bengal team and was appointed the chairman of the Cricket Association of Bengal 's Cricket Development Committee . The left @-@ handed Ganguly was a prolific One Day International ( ODI ) batsman , with over 11 @,@ 000 ODI runs to his credit . He is one of the most successful Indian Test captains to date , winning 21 out of 49 test matches.Sourav Gangly is the most successful Indian test captain overseas with 11 wins . The Indian team was ranked eighth in the ICC rankings before he became the captain , and under his tenure the team rank went up to second . An aggressive captain , Ganguly is credited with having nurtured the careers of many young players who played under him , and transforming the Indian team into an aggressive fighting unit .
Along with Harshavardhan Neotia , Sanjiv Goenka , Utsav Parekh , and Spanish La Liga side Atlético de Madrid , Ganguly is also the co @-@ owner of Atlético de Kolkata , a franchise of the Indian Super League , which won the inaugural season in 2014 .
He was awarded with the Banga Bibhushan Award from the Government of West Bengal on 20 May 2013 .
Sourav is currently a part of the Supreme Court of India appointed Justice Mudgal Committee probe panel for the IPL Spot fixing and betting scandal 's investigations .
He presently holds the post of being a member of the Indian Premier League governing council .
= = Biography = =
= = = 1972 – 1989 : Early life and introduction to cricket = = =
Sourav Ganguly was born on 8 July 1972 in Calcutta , and is the youngest son of Chandidas and Nirupa Ganguly . Chandidas ran a flourishing print business and was one of the richest men in the city . Ganguly had a luxurious childhood and was nicknamed the ' Maharaja ' , meaning the ' Great King ' . Ganguly 's father Chandidas Ganguly died at the age of 73 on 21 February 2013 after a long illness .
Since the favourite sport for the people of Calcutta was the game of football , Ganguly was initially attracted to the game . However , academics came in @-@ between his love for sports and Nirupa was not very supportive of Ganguly taking up cricket or any other sport as a career . By then , his elder brother Snehasish was already an established cricketer for the Bengal cricket team . He supported Ganguly 's dream to be a cricketer and asked their father to get Ganguly enrolled in a cricket coaching camp during his summer holidays . Ganguly was studying in tenth grade at that time .
Despite being right @-@ handed , Ganguly learnt to bat left @-@ handed so he could use his brother 's sporting equipment . After he showed some promise as a batsman , he was enrolled in a cricket academy . An indoor multi @-@ gym and concrete wicket was built at their home , so he and Snehasish could practice the game . They used to watch a number of old cricket match videos , especially the games played by David Gower , whom Ganguly admired . After he scored a century against the Orissa Under – 15 side , he was made captain of St Xavier 's School 's cricket team , where several of his teammates complained against what they perceived to be his arrogance . While touring with a junior team , Ganguly refused his turn as the twelfth man , as he reportedly felt that the duties involved , which included organising equipment and drinks for the players , and delivering messages , were beneath his social status . Ganguly purportedly refused to do such tasks as he considered it beneath his social status to assist his teammates in such a way . However , his playmanship gave him a chance to make his first @-@ class cricket debut for Bengal in 1989 , the same year that his brother was dropped from the team .
= = = 1990 – 96 : Career beginning and debut success = = =
Following a prolific Ranji season in 1990 – 91 , Ganguly scored three runs in his One Day International ( ODI ) debut for India against the West Indies in 1992 . He was dropped immediately since he was perceived to be " arrogant " and his attitude towards the game was openly questioned . It was rumoured that Ganguly refused to carry drinks for his teammates , commenting that it was not his job to do so , later denied by him . Consequently , he was removed from the team . He toiled away in domestic cricket , scoring heavily in the 1993 – 94 and 1994 – 95 Ranji seasons . Following an innings of 171 in the 1995 – 96 Duleep Trophy , he was recalled to the National team for a tour of England in 1996 , in the middle of intense media scrutiny . He played in a single ODI , but was omitted from the team for the first Test . However , after teammate Navjot Singh Sidhu left the touring , citing ill @-@ treatment by then captain Mohammad Azharuddin , Ganguly made his Test debut against England in the Second Test of a three @-@ match series at Lord 's Cricket Ground alongside Rahul Dravid . England had won the First Test of the three @-@ match series ; however , Ganguly scored a century , becoming only the third cricketer to achieve such a feat on debut at Lord 's , after Harry Graham and John Hampshire . Andrew Strauss and Matt Prior have since accomplished this feat , but Ganguly 's 131 still remains the highest by any batsman on his debut at the ground . India was not required to bat in the second innings due to the match ending in a draw . In the next Test match at Trent Bridge he made 136 , thus becoming only the third batsman to make a century in each of his first two innings ( after Lawrence Rowe and Alvin Kallicharran ) . He shared a 255 run stand with Sachin Tendulkar , which became at that time the highest partnership for India against any country for any wicket outside India . The Test again ended in a draw , handing England a 1 – 0 series victory ; Ganguly scored 48 in the second innings .
= = = 1997 – 99 : Marriage , Opening in ODIs and World Cup ' 99 = = =
Weeks after his successful tour of England , Ganguly eloped with childhood sweetheart Dona Roy . The bride and groom 's family were sworn enemies at that point and this news caused an uproar between them . However , both families reconciled and a formal wedding was held in February 1997 . Same year , Ganguly scored his maiden ODI century by hitting 113 , opposed to Sri Lanka 's team total of 238 . Later that year , he won four consecutive man of the match awards , in the Sahara Cup with Pakistan ; the second of these was won after he took five wickets for 16 runs off 10 overs , his best bowling in an ODI . After a barren run in Test cricket his form returned at the end of the year with three centuries in four Tests , all against Sri Lanka , and two of these involved stands with Sachin Tendulkar of over 250 .
During the final of the Independence Cup at Dhaka in January 1998 , India successfully chased down 315 off 48 overs , and Ganguly won the Man of the Match award . In March 1998 he was part of the Indian team that defeated Australia ; in Kolkata , he took three wickets having opened the bowling with his medium pace .
Ganguly was part of the Indian team that competed in the 1999 Cricket World Cup in England . During the match against Sri Lanka at Taunton , India chose to bat . After Sadagoppan Ramesh was bowled , Ganguly scored 183 from 158 balls , and hit 17 fours and seven sixes . It became the second highest score in World Cup history and the highest by an Indian in the tournament . His partnership of 318 with Rahul Dravid is the highest overall score in a World Cup and is the second highest in all ODI cricket . In 1999 – 00 , India lost Test series to both Australia and South Africa that involved a combined total of five Tests . Ganguly struggled scoring 224 runs at 22 @.@ 40 ; however his ODI form was impressive , with five centuries over the season taking him to the top of the PwC One Day Ratings for batsmen . Around the same time , allegations came that Ganguly was romantically involved with South Indian actress Nagma , something he denied .
= = = 2000 – 05 : Ascension to captaincy and accolades = = =
In 2000 , after the match fixing scandal by some of the players of the team , Ganguly was named the Captain of the Indian cricket team . The decision was spurred due to Tendulkar stepping down from the position for his health , and Ganguly being the vice @-@ captain at that time . He began well as a captain , leading India to a series win over South Africa in the five @-@ match one day series and led the Indian team to the finals of the 2000 ICC KnockOut Trophy . He scored two centuries , including one in the final ; however , New Zealand still won by four wickets . The same year , Ganguly tried his hand at county cricket career in England but was not successful . In " The Wisden Cricketer " , reviewers Steve Pittard and John Stern called him as " The imperious Indian — dubbed ' Lord Snooty ' . They commented :
" At the crease it was sometimes uncertain whether his partner was a batsman or a batman being dispatched to take his discarded sweater to the pavilion or carry his kit bag . But mutiny was afoot among the lower orders . In one match Ganguly , after reaching his fifty , raised his bat to the home balcony , only to find it deserted . He did not inspire at Glamorgan or Northamptonshire either . At the latter in 2006 he averaged 4 @.@ 80 from his four first @-@ class appearances . "
His Lancashire teammate Andrew Flintoff thought him to be aloof and compared his attitude to that of Prince Charles . In Australia 's three Test and five match ODI tour of India in early 2001 , Ganguly caused controversy by arriving late for the toss on four occasions , something that agitated opposing captain Steve Waugh . In the Fourth ODI , he caused further controversy by failing to wear his playing attire to the toss , something considered unusual in cricket circles . However , India won the Test series 2 – 1 , ending Australia 's run of 16 consecutive Test match victories in the Second Test . The match saw India looking set for defeat after conceding a first innings lead of 274 . Waugh chose to enforce the follow @-@ on and V. V. S. Laxman ( 281 ) and Rahul Dravid ( 180 ) batted for the entire fourth day 's play to set Australia a target of 384 on a dusty , spinning wicket . The Australians were unable to survive and became only the third team to lose a Test after enforcing the follow @-@ on . In November 2001 , Ganguly 's wife Dona gave birth to their daughter Sana Ganguly . During the final match of the 2002 NatWest Series held in Lords after a stunning performance by team mates Yuvraj Singh and Mohammad Kaif , Ganguly took off his shirt in public and brandished it in the air to celebrate India 's winning of the match . He was later strongly condemned for tarnishing the " gentleman 's game " image of cricket and disrespecting Lord 's protocol . Ganguly said that he was only mimicking an act performed by the British all @-@ rounder Andrew Flintoff during a tour of India . In 2003 , India reached the World Cup Final for the first time since 1983 , where they lost to the Australians . Ganguly had a successful tournament personally , scoring 465 runs at an average of 58 @.@ 12 , including three centuries .
By 2004 , he had achieved significant success as captain and was deemed as India 's most successful cricket captain by sections of the media . However , his individual performance deteriorated during his captaincy reign , especially after the World Cup , the tour of Australia in 2003 and the Pakistan series in 2004 . In 2004 , Australia won a Test series in India for the first time since 1969 . It was speculated that Ganguly was in disagreement with the head of cricket in Nagpur over the type of pitch to be used for the Third Test . The groundsmen went against Ganguly , leaving a large amount of grass on the pitch . Some experts indicated that the reason for this was for " spite or revenge " against the Indian captain . When Australia 's stand @-@ in @-@ captain , Adam Gilchrist , went to the toss , he noticed Rahul Dravid was waiting instead of Ganguly , leaving him to ask Dravid where Ganguly was . Dravid could not give a definitive answer , saying : " Oh , who knows ? "
Following indifferent form in 2004 and poor form in 2005 , he was dropped from the team in October 2005 . Having been nominated and rejected in 2000 , when the game suffered a tarnished reputation due to match fixing scandals , the captaincy was passed to Dravid , his former deputy . Ganguly decided against retiring and attempted to make a comeback to the team . Ganguly was awarded the Padma Shri in 2004 , India 's fourth highest civilian award , in recognition of his distinguished contribution in the field of sports . He was presented with the award on 30 June 2004 , by then President of India , Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam .
= = = 2006 – 07 : Comeback and rift with Greg Chappell = = =
In September 2005 , Greg Chappell became the coach of India for the tour of Zimbabwe . Ganguly 's dispute with him resulted in many headlines . Chappell had emailed the Board of Control for Cricket in India , stating that Ganguly was " physically and mentally " unfit to lead India and that his " divide and rule " behaviour was damaging the team . This email was leaked to the media and resulted in huge backlash from Ganguly 's fans . Ganguly had enlisted the support from the Indian media and eventually the board had to intervene and order a truce between the pair . BCCI president Ranbir Singh Mahendra issued a statement that ,
" In view of the decision that cricket is to go forward , both the coach and the captain have been asked to work out a mutual and professional working relationship . For this , performance will be the criteria , applicable to captain , coach and players . [ ... ] Of course the captain controls the game , the coach does his own job . Mutual trust is important . Henceforth no player / captain / coach will write or have any interaction with the media . Going to the media will lead to disciplinary action . "
Ganguly , Chappell and the Indian team manager for the Zimbabwe tour , Amitabh Choudhary , were asked to appear before the BCCI committee , where it was reported that assurance of working together was given by them . Consequently , due to his poor form and differences with the coach , Ganguly was dropped as the captain of the team , with Dravid taking his place . Chandresh Narayan , chief correspondent for The Times of India , commented that " The row with Greg Chappell just added to the mystery , but he was going through a really bad patch then , his only score [ of note ] was a hundred against Zimbabwe and that didn 't count for much . " Ten months later , during India 's tour to South Africa , Ganguly was recalled after his middle order replacements Suresh Raina and Mohammad Kaif suffered poor form .
Following India 's poor batting display in the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy and the ODI series in South Africa , in which they were whitewashed 4 – 0 , Ganguly made his comeback to the Test team . Wasim Jaffer , Zaheer Khan and Anil Kumble had earlier been selected for the one @-@ day squad , despite their recent poor performances . Many saw this as an indictment of coach Greg Chappell 's youth @-@ first policy . Coming in at 37 / 4 , Ganguly scored 83 in a tour match against the rest of South Africa , modifying his original batting style and taking a middle @-@ stump guard , resulting in India winning the match . During his first Test innings since his comeback , against South Africa in Johannesburg his score of 51 helped India to victory , marking the first Test match win for the team in South Africa . Though India lost the series , Ganguly accumulated the most runs on the scoring chart . After his successful Test comeback he was recalled for the ODI team , as India played host to West Indies and Sri Lanka in back to back ODI tournaments . In his first ODI innings in almost two years , he scored a matchwinning 98 . He performed well in both series , averaging almost 70 and won the Man of the Series Award against Sri Lanka .
Ganguly was allotted a place in the official team for the 2007 Cricket World Cup . He was the leading scorer for India in their first round defeat against Bangladesh . After India were knocked out of the tournament in the group stage , there were reports of a rift between certain members of the Indian team and Chappell . Ganguly was alleged to have ignored instructions from the team management to score quickly . After Tendulkar issued a statement saying that what hurt the team most was that " the coach has questioned our attitude " , Chappell decided not to renew his contract with the Indian team and left his post as coach , citing " family and personal reasons " . On 12 December 2007 , Ganguly scored his maiden double century of his career while playing against Pakistan . He scored 239 runs in the first innings of the third and final Test match of the series . He was involved in a 300 run partnership for the fifth wicket with Yuvraj Singh . Ganguly remained prolific in both Test and ODI cricket in the year 2007 . He scored 1106 Test runs at an average of 61 @.@ 44 ( with three centuries and four fifties ) in 2007 to become the second highest run @-@ scorer in Test matches of that year after Jacques Kallis . He was also the fifth highest run @-@ scorer in 2007 in ODIs , where he scored 1240 runs at an average of 44 @.@ 28 .
= = = 2008 – present : International retirement and IPL = = =
In February 2008 , Ganguly joined as the captain of Kolkata Knight Riders ( KKR ) team , owned by Bollywood actor Shahrukh Khan , as part of the Indian Premier League ( IPL ) . On 18 April 2008 , Ganguly led the KKR , in the IPL Twenty20 cricket match . They had a 140 run victory over Bangalore Royal Challengers ( captained by Rahul Dravid and owned by Vijay Mallya ) . Ganguly opened the innings with Brendan McCullum and scored 10 runs while McCullum remained unbeaten , scoring 158 runs in 73 balls . On 1 May , in a game between the Knight Riders and the Rajasthan Royals , Ganguly made his second T20 half century , scoring 51 runs off of 39 balls at a strike rate of 130 @.@ 76 . In his innings , Ganguly hit four 4s and two sixes , topping the scorers list for the Knight Riders .
On 7 July 2008 , media reported that Ganguly was being projected as a candidate for the post of President of the Cricket Association of Bengal ( CAB ) against his former mentor Jagmohan Dalmiya . Reports also suggested that he could run for the post of BCCI President in 2014 as East Zone 's representative . Ganguly himself did not deny the reports and did not rule out any such move . The same year in October , Ganguly announced that the Test series against Australia starting in October 2008 would be his last and stated " [ t ] o be honest , I didn 't expect to be picked for this series . Before coming here , [ at the conference ] I spoke to my team @-@ mates and hopefully I will go out with a winning knock . " Ganguly played in every game of the four @-@ Test series and amassed 324 runs at an average of 54 @.@ 00 . While playing the second Test match of the series in Mohali , Ganguly scored his final test century . In the final test match he played at Nagpur against Australia he scored 85 and 0 in his first and second innings respectively . In the Fourth and final Test , with India needing one wicket to secure a victory , the Indian captain , Mahendra Singh Dhoni , invited Ganguly to lead the side in the field for the final time . India regained the Border @-@ Gavaskar Trophy , winning the series 2 – 0 .
In May 2009 , Ganguly was removed from the captaincy of the KKR for the 2009 season of the IPL , and was replaced by McCullum . The decision was questioned by media and other players of the team , when KKR finished at the bottom of the ranking table with three wins and ten losses . After that , Bengali television channel Zee Bangla roped him as the host of the reality quiz show titled Dadagiri Unlimited . It presented participants from the 19 districts of West Bengal , who had to answer questions posed by Ganguly . By August , he was appointed the chairman of CAB 's Cricket Development Committee . The job of the committee is to receive a report from the selectors at the end of every cricket season , assess the accountability of the selectors and make necessary recommendations . He played for the Ranji cup in the Bengal team in October 2009 . Ganguly scored 110 in the match against Delhi and was involved in a partnership of 222 runs with Wriddhiman Saha .
In the third season of the IPL , Ganguly was once again given the captaincy of KKR , after the team ended at the bottom in the second season . The coach John Buchanan was replaced by Dav Whatmore . In 40 matches and 38 innings for KKR Ganguly scored 1 @,@ 031 runs and took eight wickets . In the fourth season of the IPL he was signed by the Pune Warriors India , after being unsold in initial bidding process and he made 50 runs of four matches and three innings . In the 2012 season he has been appointed as the Captain cum mentor for Pune Warriors India . On 29 October 2012 , he announced that he has decided not to play in next year 's IPL and to retire from the game .
= = Playing style and influences = =
Ganguly commented that David Gower was the first cricketer to attract him to the game . He loved Gower 's style and used to watch old videos of him playing . Other cricketers who had an influence on him are : David Boon , Mohinder Amarnath , Kapil Dev and Allan Border . Ganguly is a left @-@ handed batsman whose runs came primarily from the off @-@ side . Debashish Dutta , author of Sourav Ganguly , the maharaja of cricket , commented that throughout his career , " Ganguly played off @-@ side shots such as the square cut , square drive and cover drive with complete command . " Rahul Dravid has called Ganguly " ... next to God on the off @-@ side . " He used to hit powerful shots to the off @-@ side on front and back foot with equal ease . However , early in his career he was not comfortable with the hook and pull , often giving his wicket away with mistiming such shots . He was also criticised for having difficulty in handling short bouncers , notoriously exploited by the Australians and South Africans . However , after his comeback in 2007 , he worked upon these weaknesses to a large extent .
Amrita Daityari , author of Sourav Ganguly : the fire within , noted that in ODIs , where Ganguly usually opened the innings , he used to try to take the advantage of fielding restrictions by advancing down the pitch and hitting pace bowlers over extra cover and mid @-@ off . She commented : " Ganguly was notorious for attacking left @-@ arm spin bowlers . Due to excellent eye – hand coordination , he was noted for picking the length of the ball early , coming down the pitch and hitting the ball aerially over mid @-@ on or midwicket , often for a six . However , he did have a weakness in running between the wickets and judging quick singles . " There were many instances where Ganguly 's batting partner was run out due to Ganguly 's calling for a run , and then sending him back while halfway down the pitch . A situation like this happened in an ODI against Australia where he took a single when on 99 , but he coasted and did not ground his bat . Although the bat was past the crease , it was in the air and he was consequently run out . Ganguly said , " I love to watch myself hit a cover drive , to watch myself hit a hundred . " Ganguly 's relationship with former Indian coach John Wright has been well documented in contemporary media , with them denoting the relationship as a " symbiotic process " . They credited Wright and Ganguly with bringing out international class performers , through academic , coaching and scientific fitness regimens . According to Dubey , Ganguly and Wright , along with other members of the team like Tendulkar and Dravid , were the first to understand the importance of a foreign coach for the Indian cricket team and was convinced that the domestic coach has outlived its utility . Ganguly 's aggressive style and Wright 's importance on fitness ushered in the development of a better cricket team for India .
Ganguly is a right @-@ arm medium pace bowler . He can swing and seam the ball both ways and often chips in with useful wickets to break partnerships . Vinod Tiwari , author of the biography Sourav Ganguly praised him saying " [ d ] espite not being very athletic as a fielder , Ganguly has taken 100 catches in one @-@ day Internationals . That 's something to be proud of ! " However he criticised Ganguly 's ground fielding , especially his slowness in intercepting the ball to prevent runs and his tendency to get injured during catching the ball .
= = Legacy = =
Author Pradeep Mandhani commented that in his tenure between 2000 and 2005 , Ganguly became India 's most successful Test captain . He led his team to victory on 21 occasions – seven times more than Mohammad Azharuddin with the second most wins — and led them for a record 49 matches — twice more than both Azharuddin and Sunil Gavaskar . Compared to his batting average of 45 @.@ 47 when not captain , Ganguly 's Test batting average as captain was a lower 37 @.@ 66 .
Statistics about Ganguly show that he was the seventh Indian cricketer to have played 100 Test matches , the 4th highest overall run scorer for India in Tests , and the fourth Indian to have played in more than 300 ODIs . In terms of overall runs scored in ODIs , Ganguly is the second among Indians after Sachin Tendulkar ( who has the most ODI runs ) and the eighth overall . He has scored 16 centuries in Test matches and 22 in ODIs . He is also one of only ten batsmen to score more than 10 @,@ 000 runs in ODIs . Along with Tendulkar , Ganguly has formed the most successful opening pair in One Day Cricket , having amassed the highest number of century partnerships ( 26 ) for the first wicket . Together , they have scored more than 7000 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 98 , and hold the world record for creating most number of 50 @-@ run partnership in the first wicket ( 44 fifties ) . Ganguly became the fourth player to cross 11 @,@ 000 ODI runs , and was the fastest player to do so in ODI cricket , after Tendulkar . As of 2006 , he is the only Indian captain to win a Test series in Pakistan ( although two of the three Tests of that series was led by Rahul Dravid ) . He is also one of the five players in the world to achieve amazing treble of 10 @,@ 000 runs , 100 wickets and 100 catches in ODI cricket history , the others being Tendulkar , Kallis , Sanath Jayasuriya and Tillakaratne Dilshan .
Author Mihir Bose , in his book , The magic of Indian cricket : cricket and society in India. commented that " The cricket world had gotten too used to the stereotype of the meek Indian cricketer . All that has changed under Ganguly , perhaps for the better . " He credits Ganguly for not being shy of taking on responsibility . " He showed that he can be a leader of a team , which has greats like Sachin and Dravid in the side , without any problems . Under Ganguly 's leadership , India started winning matches and tournaments , previously lacking from the team considerably . " Within a few years of his captaincy , Ganguly rewrote the rules of being a captain of a cricket team . Unlike some of his predecessors , Ganguly was considered impartial , non @-@ parochial , and forever pushed his players to perform better . Off the field , his interactions with the media , his fans , and detractors were uncompromisingly honest and earned him the respect of cricket followers everywhere . However , along with this respect came the criticisms . Ganguly was condemned as a hot @-@ tempered man who refused to listen to other 's opinions and abided by his own rules and regulations . Matthew Engel , ICC sport critic , noted that this " turning deaf " to other 's opinions would one day harm Ganguly and that it was sheer luck that he existed on the sporting world .
Ganguly believed that his legacy as a captain was that he was able to build a proper Indian team . He added ,
" [ We ] were able to change the face of Indian cricket . That 's what I 'm proud of , because I think we made a huge difference . People used to think that we would simply roll over when playing out of India , but we changed the image . [ ... ] [ The team wouldn 't take any crap from any opposition ] Absolutely , and that came from self @-@ belief that , that we had the ability to do well outside India . "
Bose commented that Ganguly 's greatest legacy lay in his influence on the younger and budding generation of cricketers . Ganguly felt that every young player should play two years of domestic cricket before being selected for international assignments . He also said that every newcomer should be given at least five games to prove himself . Later he explained that being at the receiving end of an unfair decision against him , that threatened to ruin his international cricket career , it enabled him to understand the insecurities of other newcomers in the team better than his predecessors . Ganguly had always backed the influence and contribution of younger players of the team .
Despite his contributions , his captaincy and coaching methods came under immense scrutiny from the press as well as other scholars . Engel commented that " He seems like aloof to the problems that his mal @-@ decisions are creating . I don 't particularly believe that Ganguly has an ' effing knowledge how to lead his team and tries to counter @-@ pose it with instigating limitless , confrontational behaviours within the younger members of it . [ One day ] the time will come when such shock tactics will cease to work . " An article on Cricinfo Magazine pointed out his reckless behaviour . The reporter Rahul Bhattacharya said , " Generally Ganguly fostered angry or reckless young men . To him ' good behaviour ' , a broad term espoused by the present team management , belonged in school and probably not even there . He himself had been summoned to the match referee no less than 12 times in the last decade . His approach was bound to precipitate what could possibly be termed a cultural conflict in the world of modern sport . For Ganguly , like for Arjuna Ranatunga , competitiveness involved brinksmanship rather than training . As far as they were concerned Australia were not to be aspired to . They were simply to be toppled . England were not to be appeased . Victory lay precisely in their disapproval . In other words , Ganguly and Ranatunga wanted to do things their way . "
= = Overall career performance = =
= = Records and achievements = =
The only cricketer to win four consecutive man of the match awards in One Day Internationals .
The eighth highest run @-@ scorer in ODI history and second among the Indians , with 11 @,@ 363 runs .
The fastest batsman to reach 9 @,@ 000 ODI runs .
One of the only five cricketers to have achieved the unique treble of 10 @,@ 000 runs , 100 wickets & 100 catches in ODI cricket .
His Test batting average never went below 40 .
Has the highest individual score by an Indian batsman ( 183 ) in the Cricket World Cup .
One of the 14 cricketers in the world to have played 100 or more Tests and 300 or more ODIs .
India 's most successful Test captain overseas , winning 11 out of 28 matches that he led .
= = Captaincy record = =
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= Lisa 's First Word =
" Lisa 's First Word " is the tenth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It was first broadcast on Fox in the United States on December 3 , 1992 . In the episode , as the Simpson family gathers around Maggie and tries to encourage her to say her first word , Marge reminisces and tells the story of Lisa 's first word . Elizabeth Taylor appeared for the voicing of Maggie 's first word .
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland and written by Jeff Martin . After its initial airing on Fox , the episode was later released as part of a 1999 video collection : The Simpsons : Greatest Hits , and released again on the 2003 DVD edition of the same collection . The episode features cultural references to two chains of fast food restaurants , Wendy 's and McDonald 's , as well as a reference to the 1981 arcade video game Ms. Pac @-@ Man . " Lisa 's First Word " received positive reception from television critics , and acquired a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 6 .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family are trying unsuccessfully to get Maggie to speak , inspiring Marge to share the story of Lisa 's first word .
The story flashes back to March 1983 where Homer , Marge and Bart originally lived in an apartment on the lower east side of Springfield . Homer and Marge had to cope with Bart , who was two years old at the time . Marge reveals to her husband and their son that she 's pregnant again , and points out to Homer that they will probably need a bigger place . After viewing several unsuitable properties , they buy a house on Evergreen Terrace with a $ 15 @,@ 000 down payment from the sale of Grampa Simpson 's house .
In 1984 , the Simpsons move into their new home and meet their new neighbors , Ned Flanders and his family . Meanwhile , Krusty the Clown begins a promotion for the 1984 Summer Olympic Games with his Krusty Burger chain , a scratch @-@ and @-@ win game in which people scratch off the name of an event from the game card and if the United States wins a gold in that event , they win a free Krusty Burger . However , Krusty is told that the game cards are rigged so they only contain events in which " Communists never lose " . Shortly thereafter , Krusty is told of a boycott of the Games by the Soviets and their allies and that he stands to lose $ 44 million on the game .
Bart is forced to give up his crib so it can be used for the baby . Homer builds him a new bed shaped like a maniacal clown , which terrifies Bart. When Lisa is born and gets all the attention , Bart takes an immediate dislike to her . Eventually , he is about to run away until Lisa says her first word , " Bart " . Thrilled that his name is his sister 's first word , Marge explains to Bart that Lisa adores him . He accepts her as his little sister and they both find it funny that they each call Homer by his name , rather than " daddy " as he wishes .
Back in the present day , Homer takes Maggie to bed , commenting on how the sooner kids learn to talk , the sooner they learn to talk back , and tells Maggie that he hopes she never says a word . But as soon as he turns off the light and closes the door , Maggie takes her pacifier out of her mouth and utters the word " daddy " , before going to sleep . This takes on added significance because as shown earlier in the episode , when both Bart and Lisa first learn to speak , they address their dad for the first time as " Homer " and not " daddy " as Homer tries to admonish against the use of his first name .
= = Production = =
" Lisa 's First Word " was written by Jeff Martin , and directed by Mark Kirkland . The Simpsons writers Mike Reiss and Al Jean were discussing about having an episode where Maggie would say her first word , and Reiss thought it would be cute to have her say " daddy " when no one could hear her . Jeff Martin was assigned to write the episode because he had done another flashback episode in the past , " I Married Marge " . Martin was excited to do another flashback episode because he thought it was fun to check out old newspapers and go back and see what was in the news back in 1983 and 1984 . Martin felt it was a good way of finding a new set of things to make jokes about .
In the episode , Homer builds a scary clown @-@ shaped bed for Bart. The scene was inspired by Mike Reiss , whose dad had built him a clown @-@ shaped bed when he was younger , and just like Bart , Reiss was scared of sleeping in it . As the flashback begins in 1983 , a young Homer strolls down the street , singing Cyndi Lauper 's song " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " , which was released the same year . The idea for this sequence came from animation director Chuck Sheetz , who suggested it because the length of the final version of the episode was too short . The Fox censors wrote a note concerning Homer 's line , " Bart can kiss my hairy , yellow butt ! " after Marge tells Homer that Bart might be jealous of baby Lisa , citing that the line is considered " coarse " , due to the fact that Bart was two during the flashback .
Maggie 's first word was provided by the Academy Award @-@ winning actress Elizabeth Taylor , who would also voice herself in the season four finale , " Krusty Gets Kancelled " . While promoting the episode , the producers initially did not reveal who the voice of Maggie would be , prompting speculation as to the identity of the actress . Although it was only one word , the voice came out " too sexy " and Taylor had to record the part numerous times before the producers were satisfied and thought it sounded like a baby . Several sources , including John Ortved 's The Simpsons history article " Simpsons Family Values " in Vanity Fair , have reported that after Taylor had been made to repeatedly record the line , she said " fuck you " to series creator Matt Groening and stormed out of the studio . Groening recounted this event on a 1994 appearance on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , and was also quoted by the New York Daily News in 2007 as saying " We did 24 takes , but they were always too sexual . Finally Liz said , ' F — you , ' and walked out . " However , Groening later denied the story in the DVD commentary for the episode " Gump Roast " , while Jean stated in a piece after Taylor 's death in 2011 that Taylor had said " fuck you " in jest and in Maggie 's voice and did not storm out .
= = Cultural references = =
The Springfield Shopper headline from the day Lisa was born ( " Mondale to Hart : Where 's the beef ? " ) uses the then @-@ current advertising slogan for Wendy 's . Mondale , a candidate in the 1984 presidential election , used the " Where 's the beef ? " phrase at an election rally in 1984 while mocking one of his opponents . Recounting his cousin Frank who became Francine in 1976 and then joined a cult , Homer says , " I think his name is Mother Shabubu now " , a reference to Ma Anand Sheela , chief assistant to Indian mystic / so @-@ called sex guru Rajneesh and manager of Rajneeshpuram from 1981 to 1985 . Marge begins telling her story of Lisa 's first word by saying : " This story begins in the unforgettable spring of 1983 . Ms. Pac @-@ man struck a blow for women 's rights and a young Joe Piscopo taught us how to laugh " , making references to the 1981 arcade video game Ms. Pac @-@ Man and the American actor Joe Piscopo . The episode features an Itchy & Scratchy cartoon called " 100 @-@ Yard Gash " , which uses the music from the 1981 film Chariots of Fire . Homer and Marge consider buying a houseboat from the Sea Captain ; his pitch is cut short by a shark , which he proceeds to fight , in a reference to the film Jaws . Abe Simpson tells Homer he built their house with his own two hands ; Homer corrects him saying he won it on a crooked 50 's game show , but Abe ratted on everyone and got away scott @-@ free , referencing the scandal surrounding 50 's quiz show " Twenty One " . When Lisa started saying " Bart " repeatedly , Bart replies " Suffering succotash ! " which is Sylvester the Cat 's catchphrase .
The Olympic promotion by Krusty Burger is loosely based on a similar " scratch @-@ and @-@ win " promotion by McDonald 's , in which McDonald 's visitors could win a Big Mac , french fries , a drink , or even a cash prize up to $ 10 @,@ 000 if Team USA won a medal in the visitor 's listed event . McDonald 's lost millions on the promotion due to the 1984 Summer Olympics boycott by the Soviet Union , as happened to Krusty . At one point in the episode , Dr. Hibbert refers to Olympic gymnastic medalist Mary Lou Retton . Bart has Lisa say the name David Hasselhoff when he shows her his picture on a TV Guide . This is a reference to Knight Rider .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Lisa 's First Word " was watched by 28 @.@ 6 million viewers , the most @-@ watched episode of the season . It finished thirteenth in the ratings for the week of November 30 to December 6 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 6 . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on Fox that week . It acquired the highest national Nielsen rating of the show since the season two episode " Bart Gets an " F " " aired on October 11 , 1990 . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , said the episode is a " convincing portrait of young marriage and hardship in the days of Reaganomics — and the biggest name to guest voice gets the littlest , but the most significant , to say " . When asked to pick his favorite season out of The Simpsons seasons one through twenty , Paul Lane of the Niagara Gazette picked season four and highlighted " the sweetly funny " " Lisa 's First Word " . David Johnson at DVD Verdict named it " one of the greatest flashback episodes " . Dave Manley at DVDActive said in a review of the The Simpsons : Greatest Hits DVD that it is " one of the better episodes and probably my personal favourite on the disc , although most Simpsons connoisseurs would probably go for the previous episode [ on the DVD ] " , and added that there are " some great parodies in the episode too " . The Orlando Sentinel 's Gregory Hardy named it the fourteenth best episode of the show with a sports theme ( the Olympics in this case ) .
Elizabeth Taylor 's performance as Maggie was praised by critics . She was named the 13th greatest guest spot in the history of the show by IGN . Taylor also appeared on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars . Todd Everett at Variety called the last scene in the episode , where Maggie speaks her first word , " quite a heart @-@ melter " . He added that " it is probably no surprise that the casting of Elizabeth Taylor as the voice for baby Maggie Simpson 's first word was a publicity stunt [ ... ] No mind , the episode in question delivered well @-@ rounded view of series ' multiple attractions . " Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked her performance as the best guest appearance in the show 's history . Fox rebroadcast the episode on April 3 , 2011 in memory of Taylor , following her death on March 23 .
= = = " Can 't sleep , clown will eat me " = = =
Inspired by an event in The Simpsons writer Mike Reiss ' childhood , young Bart does not want to give up sleeping in the crib to make way for his newborn sister . Noticing Bart 's affection for Krusty the Clown but unable to afford a professionally built Krusty @-@ themed bed , Homer decides to build a bed with Krusty 's likeness to please his son . However , because of Homer 's poor handicraft skills , the bed takes on an ominous appearance and frightens Bart , especially in the darkened room . In his first night in the new bed , far from " laughing himself to sleep " , Bart imagines that the face on the headboard of the bed comes to life , intoning with evil glee , " if you should die before you wake ... " , before collapsing into evil cackling .
The next morning , Bart is curled up into the fetal position on the floor next to the sofa downstairs , repeatedly uttering the phrase " can 't sleep , clown will eat me ... " The catchphrase inspired the Alice Cooper song " Can 't Sleep , Clowns Will Eat Me " from the 2001 album Dragontown . The phrase has since found its way into popular use .
= = Merchandise = =
" Lisa 's First Word " originally aired on December 3 , 1992 , on the Fox network . The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes titled : The Simpsons : Greatest Hits . Other episodes included in the collection set were " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , " Sweet Seymour Skinner 's Baadasssss Song " , " Trash of the Titans " , and " Bart Gets an " F " " . It was included in The Simpsons season 4 DVD set , which was released on June 15 , 2004 as The Simpsons — The Complete Fourth Season . The episode was again included in the 2003 DVD release of the " Greatest Hits " set , but this time the set did not include " Trash of the Titans " .
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= Flame & Citron =
Flame & Citron ( Danish : Flammen & Citronen ) is a 2008 Danish drama film co @-@ written and directed by Ole Christian Madsen . The film , a fictionalized account based on historical events , stars Thure Lindhardt and Mads Mikkelsen as two Danish resistance movement fighters nicknamed Flammen and Citron , during the Nazi occupation of Denmark in World War II . Attracted by the story of the pair since he was twelve , Madsen spent eight years along with co @-@ writer Lars K. Andersen researching historical archives to produce it .
Madsen 's idea was to bring attention to the story of Flammen and Citron as he felt it had been neglected or misrepresented . The most expensive Danish film produced to that date , it was co @-@ produced by German companies because initially there was no interest in producing the film in Denmark . Portraying the protagonists as morally ambiguous characters , the director tried to depict war as a complicated experience that goes beyond a good versus evil dichotomy . With visual and narrative references borrowed from film noir and the French film Army of Shadows , Flame & Citron also explores themes of love , betrayal , and the emotional aspects of relationships .
The film was released in Denmark on 28 March 2008 to positive reviews . The most @-@ watched film in the country that year , it was praised mostly for the actors ' performances , dramatic style , and depiction of war and its moral dilemmas . Considered an art film by some critics , the film was compared , both favorably and negatively , to Army of Shadows and other war films ; it also sparked a debate over its historical accuracy . Additionally , it was nominated for both domestic and international film awards .
= = Plot = =
Set after the Nazi invasion of Denmark , the film focuses on the Holger Danske resistance group 's Bent Faurschou Hviid ( known as Flammen ) and Jørgen Haagen Schmith ( known as Citron ) . In a bar , Bent flirts with a woman , who identifies herself as Ketty Selmer and disturbs him by saying his real name . Bent and Jørgen follow the woman , and she tells Bent she is an emissary from Stockholm to Copenhagen .
Aksel Winther , Bent and Jørgen 's handler , signals to them to kill Elisabeth Lorentzen , Horst Gilbert , and Hermann Seibold – members of the Abwehr , the German military intelligence service . Bent and Jørgen argue over it as they kill only Danes , to reduce the chance of retaliation by the Nazis . However , Winther claims orders from the government in exile in London . Bent kills Lorentzen but fails to kill Gilbert and Seibold . Later , Jørgen , his wife , Bodil , and their daughter , Ann , celebrate the girl 's birthday on their car as they are without money , and Bodil laments over their relationship . Three weeks later , Bent , Jørgen and Whinter meet Spex from the Danish Army Intelligence . He says there will be no more attacks , as they need peace to assemble men for a big attack . The three agree that they should not follow Spex 's order , and later Jørgen kills Gilbert . That night , Jørgen robs a grocery store and takes the products to his wife and daughter ; however , Bodil announces she is seeing another man .
After several members of the resistance are killed by the Gestapo , Winther suspects they have an informant among them . Later , Bent visits Ketty 's hotel room , and they have sex . Meanwhile , Jørgen visits his wife and advises her boyfriend to treat her properly or he will return . In a meeting , Winther says the informer is Ketty and orders her death . Bent meets Ketty ; she tells him she works for both Winther and army intelligence , and that Winther does not work for the British . Winther , involved with Gilbert and Seibold , had ordered them to be killed in order not to be seen as a traitor . Bent and Jørgen search for Winther in the bar and discover that he has escaped to Stockholm . They realize it is a trap , and they escape from the Gestapo men . They decide to kill Karl Heinz Hoffmann , the Gestapo 's leader , and then take over the favorite Gestapo restaurant . Bent cannot kill Hoffmann because they have to get away when he notices the police coming . That night , Ketty says to Bent that he and Jørgen should go to Stockholm . In the meeting , they are offered positions in the Danish Army but they refuse . A man called Ravnen gives them the name of the real informer , and Jørgen soon kills him .
Bent visits his father , the owner of a hotel , who says Hoffmann , his family and his mistresses visit there on occasion . In a fateful coincidence Bent sees Ketty arrive at the hotel in the company of Hoffman in what appears to be a tryst . Later Bent confronts Ketty , and she argues that army intelligence requested her to stay close to Hoffmann . Bent demands to know what car Hoffman uses and what his route is . Later , on the road , Bent , Jørgen and some allies open fire on two cars with Nazi flags ; however , they are dismayed to discover they have killed a father and wounded a child . An enraged Bent goes to Ketty 's hotel room , only to discover that she has flown to Stockholm , fearing Hoffmann 's retaliation . Now , Bent and Jørgen plan to kill Hoffmann , and they disguise themselves as policemen . However , they are arrested in a general round @-@ up of the German @-@ allied Danish police , who are killing policemen by firing squad . Jørgen decides to jump over a fence and is shot , allowing Bent to escape . Time passes , and Jørgen is at a safe house . A squad of German officers arrives . He kills some of them with a sub @-@ machine gun and grenades but ultimately is killed . Meanwhile , Bent , in his home , commits suicide with a pill when he sees the Gestapo arriving . Later , Hoffmann gives Ketty the reward for helping apprehend Bent and a letter from him found in his room , in which he expresses his feelings and his doubt of her betrayal . The film ends with notes about Bent and Jørgen 's legacy .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Director Ole Christian Madsen had read the book They Saw It Happen about the Nazi Resistance when he was 12 . He was especially attracted by the story of the pair because of their moral ambiguity . Madsen stated , " They both fascinated and scared me , and I sensed there was something dark and untold in their story . " He " wanted to make a film that would revive and reassess their reputation " . Years later , he met writer Lars K. Andersen , who had also read the book during his childhood , and this led them to envision a film . The project started in 1999 ; the idea for the film did not attract sponsors because it was viewed as " past history " or because it portrayed the resistance " outrageously " . This was precisely one of Madsen 's objectives : to talk about their story because Danish wartime archives listed many fatalities simply as casualties of war instead of counting them as murders , thus " suppress [ ing ] " their real story . He wanted to bring attention to a part of Danish history " the nation has since neglected to talk about " , resulting in a " collective misrepresentation " .
Even in the wake of major companies ' refusal to support the project , Madsen and Andersen continued to research archives in England , Germany and Sweden . In 2005 , however , German films about World War II started to become popular , and several German companies became interested in the idea for the film . It became a co @-@ production between Denmark and Germany , with three companies — Nimbus Film , Wüste Film and Babelsberg Studio — producing it . Filming took place at the Babelsberg locations in Potsdam @-@ Babelsberg , Germany , and large parts of the film were shot at locations in Copenhagen , Denmark , and Prague , Czech Republic . It received a $ 460 @,@ 000 grant from the German Film Fund for its total budget of more than 45 million Danish kroner ( or $ 7 @.@ 6 million ) , making it the most expensive Danish film produced to that date .
Originally , Madsen planned to create a docudrama @-@ style film but when he discovered Ketty was a Russian spy and had a love affair with Flammen he changed his mind . This finding " forced me to make the film a much more stylish , more noirish piece of work . " " Even so , I tried to keep a soft touch style @-@ wise out of respect for the film 's subject , " said Madsen . He tried to make it feel real by " eliminating the distance to 1944 " and directing the film as if it were set in the present .
Thure Lindhardt , a frequent collaborator in Madsen 's films with an ability to " slip himself into any part " , according to the director , was cast . Mads Mikkelsen was chosen by the director before his international career was launched because , as Madsen said , " he has this grand masculinity , and he approaches his roles like an animal " . Both Lindhardt and Mikkelsen were cast early in the project , in about 2005 , and Stengade was cast even earlier — in 2001 . The casting process " wasn 't really difficult , because I didn 't feel that so many people could play these parts " , Madsen stated .
= = = Style = = =
The visual style was described by the director as a mix of his own former films which varied from " film @-@ noir in its essence , very dark and very eclectic " to " hand @-@ held " , " more visually relaxing " . Guy Lodge of Incontention described it as " owing much to film noir in the intricacy of its narrative and the lush , shadow @-@ drenched stylization of its visuals " . Wally Hammond , for Time Out London , said its cinematography varies " between atmospheric , noir @-@ esque period evocation and modern widescreen stylings , with excellent use of low @-@ key lighting , silhouettes and location " . Mark Jenkins of NPR said it had a " classic look " both in visuals and in storytelling ; visually , " with widescreen compositions , overhead shots and dramatic contrasts of light and dark " , and in its narrative " [ s ] ome sequences are quick and messy , but others are grand and theatrical . " Joe Morgenstern , critic for The Wall Street Journal , said the " pace is deliberate , [ and ] the tone is pensive , albeit punctuated by occasional violence . "
Madsen was influenced by Jean @-@ Pierre Melville 's Army of Shadows ( 1969 ) , about the French Resistance , especially " the way it told its story through only rituals and dialogue " . He watched it about half a year before filming Flame & Citron , and it also inspired " the mythologizing of the characters " in Flame & Citron . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times affirmed , " You can see the Melville touch in the impenetrable shadows that spill across Mr. Madsen 's carefully composed mise @-@ en @-@ scène and in the fedoras and trench coats worn by his two heroes . " Erica Abeel of The Hollywood Reporter said , " In its tough @-@ mindedness Flame [ & Citron ] owes much to Jean @-@ Pierre Melville 's Army of Shadows . "
= = Themes = =
In the film Madsen tried to challenge the idea of war as " black and white " and the idea that the resistance was " a cohesive whole " . He says of war that it " has many more nuances , it is grayer , less defined . When an enemy may stop being one at any time and a friend can become an enemy overnight , things become less clear " . Ella Taylor of The Village Voice commented , " Flame & Citron is less about the battle between good and evil than about losing one 's way in the fog of war , which makes it hard to tell friend from foe and harder yet to sort through the rules of engagement , and complicates the heroic honor codes of movies about the ' good war . ' " Marshall Fine of The Huffington Post asserted that the violence in the film is double @-@ edged : " [ it ] takes its toll on the perpetrator as well as the victim . " Similarly , The Irish Times 's Derek Scally stated the film analyses " the dehumanising effect of assassinations on assassin " .
Madsen tried to explore this " moral dilemma " , " the drama behind the story of the ' illegals ' " and human psychology in crisis situations . Madsen ultimately defined his film " as an investigation of what happens psychologically to someone who sacrifices himself in war " . Because of this , he portrayed Flammen and Citron as " modern heroes with cracks in their souls and doubts and insecurities " . Citron even reflected upon killing people but " he did it . He sold out his humanity for the highest price . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described the story as " a psychologically complex look at what heroism does to heroes . The actions these men take tear at their lives , their families , their very essence . " Morgenstern analysed it as " a meditation on the nature of heroism , and the quest for purity of purpose " . Turan even said it is " more nihilistic than idealistic " , while Tirdad Derakhshani of The Philadelphia Inquirer asserted that it " balances the whizzing bullets and political intrigue with an elegiac tone and an existential edge just this side of nihilism " . Its depiction of the resistance in a non @-@ heroic way made it a " one @-@ off film " in Danish cinema , according to film historian Lars @-@ Martin Sørensen .
Another theme the film deals with is the bureaucracy in the resistance , according to Ty Burr of Boston Globe , as the main pair would prefer to work as freelancers . Writing for The Washington Post , Michael O 'Sullivan said the film also has " a surprisingly contemporary subtext , as when Hoffmann , in an abortive showdown with Flame , calls his would @-@ be assassin a well @-@ intentioned , but ultimately misguided , terrorist . ' Don 't you realize , ' Hoffmann asks , ' you 're just a tool for someone with less pure motives ? ' " Burr also commented that " The film repeatedly poses that question [ " Who 's being set up here ? " ] and pointedly refuses to answer . By its silence , it suggests that in wartime everyone can be both user and used . "
Kenneth Turan affirmed that Flame & Citron has several themes as it " is chock full of plot and incident , action and romance , loyalty and betrayal " . Derakhshani stated it " rehearses virtually every element of the classic genre piece : violence , sex and romance , gunplay , spies , betrayals , a femme fatale , and a murderous Gestapo officer " . Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters noted that , though he has to deal mainly with " moral questions , Flame confronts an emotional complication — in the conventional form of a woman " . Abeel argued that " For beneath his stony exterior , it 's Flame 's romantic soul that will prove his worst enemy . This masterful film is at once a portrait of wartime heroism and a poignant journey into a boy 's secret heart . "
= = Release = =
Flame & Citron debuted in Danish theaters on 28 March 2008 and premiered on 28 August 2008 in Germany . The film was seen by over 770 @,@ 000 people in Europe ; it had a public of 668 @,@ 000 in Denmark , making it the most watched film in the country that year . It grossed $ 9 @,@ 210 @,@ 518 in Denmark for a total of $ 10 @,@ 186 @,@ 084 from screenings in twelve other countries — Argentina , Austria , Colombia , Germany , Greece , New Zealand , Norway , Portugal , Spain , the United Kingdom , and the United States .
Flame & Citron was domestically distributed by Sandrew Metronome ; it was released on DVD and Blu @-@ Ray Disc on 30 September 2008 . The film was distributed by Metrodome in the United Kingdom , debuting on 6 March 2009 . Metrodome Video released the DVD in the United Kingdom on 1 January 2009 , while its Blu @-@ Ray release occurred on 29 June 2009 . In the United States , IFC Films licensed the film , and its North American debut occurred at the Telluride Film Festival on 29 August 2008 . IFC released it on demand on 29 July 2009 , while its theatrical release was on 31 July 2009 , and its home media release was on 23 February 2010 .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Domestic reviews = = =
Critical response to the film was mixed but mostly positive , in Denmark , including praise for Madsen 's direction , the performances of Lindhardt , Mikkelsen , Stengade and Mygind ; opinions were divided about the portrayal of the main characters . The film " has shocked Danish audiences " for its portrayal of the protagonists as non @-@ heroic , and has been criticised by historians . Berlingske 's Ebbe Iversen commented that it can be both good and bad to have morally ambiguous characters as it can be seen as " an artistic force " to have " authentic protagonists psychology " , but it can also be frustrating to have their motives portrayed as " enigmatic " . The critic stated it did not make it a bad film , instead " its subtle , not uncritical portrayal of the resistance seems sober and serious , the style is worked out to the smallest detail , and in its outer form the film is the type of work that you unkindly call conventional and more kindly describe as classic . "
Henrik Queitsch of Ekstra Bladet praised the action sequences for its details , even saying it is the best Danish war film ever and said it is also " a booming interesting history and a multifaceted psychological portrait – not only of Flame and Citron , but also of the many people they come across in their path " . Kim Skotte of Politiken said it had more gunfire than psychology and that it lacked a more detailed explanation of the characters ' backgrounds that would justify their personalities . Writing for Jyllands @-@ Posten , Johs . H. Christensen wrote that there " never occurs any real connection , no excitement , no interaction , no common destiny between Flame and Citron , although they are inextricably linked most of the time " .
DR 's Per Juul Carlsen declared that although the film is visually beautiful , he is not sure it should be this way : " Had it not been better and more correct to tell the story really ugly and blurry in the rain instead of sunshine ... with realism instead of polished exquisiteness [ ? ] " . He also criticized it for sharing too much of the American gangster and spy film clichés . The most critical review was done by Georg Metz of Dagbladet Information , who criticized its historicity and thought the characters were psychologically underdeveloped and uninteresting . Metz wrote , " The nicest [ thing ] one can say about this film , if it is nice , is that it celebrates the naïve view of history " and described it as " [ a ] neo @-@ nationalistic panopticon of predominantly cardboard figures that will be suitable for evening entertainment for the Danish People 's Party and the Liberal Party congresses . Quite apart from that about a third of the dialogue is hard to understand , because the players do not articulate appropriately . "
= = = International reviews = = =
The film was generally well received by Western critics . Based on 70 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , it has an overall approval rating of 87 percent from critics and an average score of 6 @.@ 8 out of 10 . According to the website 's consensus , the film , " though lengthy and sprawling , is gripping and competently made " . Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating from 100 top reviews by mainstream critics , calculated a score of 74 based on 20 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
SFGate 's Walter stated , " [ t ] hough the material might lend itself to heavy @-@ handedness , director Ole Christian Madsen is steady , and he gets fine performances from the two leads and [ Stine ] Stengade . " The actors ' performances were also praised by Fine , who said " Lindhardt and Mikkelsen make a fascinating team " , while " Stengade is appropriately slippery " . Todd McCarthy from Variety asserted that " [ p ] erformances are low @-@ key but resolute and brimming with nerves and intensity . " Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle commented that " Mikkelsen and Lindhardt are spectacularly invested in their roles . ... Beyond that is a drop @-@ dead gorgeous period noir , rife with paranoia , femmes fatales , and good men inexorably sinking into the bloody mire and opaque texture of life ( and death ) during wartime . "
Abeel praised how , by " [ a ] voiding the docu @-@ style string of anecdotes of many fact @-@ based films , it offers the shapeliness and irony of classic drama " . Hammond commended Madsen as the film " achieves a sense of psychological complexity – and a pervasive atmosphere of fear and confusion – without sacrificing the rhythm and dramatic tension necessary to a war film " . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised its combination of " sharp scenes of moral inquiry with a few too many functional , oldfangled espionage twists " . Fuchs applauded the interpolation of emotional relations as they " help to make Flame & Citron 's taut action even more effective . Beautifully choreographed and filmed in deep shadows that cut the violence into shadowy , brutal fragments , Flame and Citron 's jobs are at once thrilling and disconcerting " . Kate Taylor from The Globe and Mail , however , said the romantic relationship , " predictable in a James Bond kind of way , is the weakest link in the script " .
Nick de Semlyen from Empire considered it an average film , saying " It 's familiar ground for anyone who 's seen Black Book or Sophie Scholl , but director Ole Christian Madsen steers a skilful course , keeping things grim but not to an off @-@ putting extent , bringing a David Lynch @-@ esque vibe to Flame 's hotel dalliances with a shady lady and pulling off an incredible death scene for one of the leads . " Noel Murray of The A.V. Club criticized it for " hammer [ ing ] too hard on the shopworn theme of how war sickens souls . Far more interesting is Flame & Citron 's other theme : the idea that war turns the notion of ' shades of gray ' into a luxury " . V. A. Musetto , for the New York Post , commented that , although it " features well @-@ choreographed shootouts and assassinations " , its " script is too melodramatic and complicated for its own good " . Burr mostly praised it but said that " Madsen eventually loses his way " , stating that there was " not enough " information about Citron and that the film " feels packed with events and frustratingly unfocused " . Derakhshani argued that it " has some rough , tedious patches – at 130 minutes , it 's simply too long . And its reiteration of Hollywood cliches isn 't always successful . Regardless , it is , along with Paul Verhoeven 's Black Book , one of the most accomplished films to come out of the recent wave of neoclassic and revisionist WW II films " .
= = = Comparisons to other films = = =
Jenkins said the best scenes in Flame and Citron are the ones who share Army of Shadows 's " chaos " , and he criticised what he described as an aspiration " to be a noble national epic , rather than the rougher , more universal tale of two desperate men fighting for a cause " . To Jenkins , Melville 's film had a " more cogent outlook " because " [ f ] ighting the Nazis was just like any other gang war – a mad scramble to survive " . On the other hand , Dargis commented that Army of Shadows 's " lack of pity " makes it " so unbearably sad , its almost repellent hardness of heart . What Flame & Citron has instead are decent men taking down Nazis ... and some appealing actors . " Slant Magazine 's Tom Stempel affirmed , " I found Army of Shadows both admirable and chilling , and in some ways Flame & Citron is even better . "
Although he praised the " beautifully choreographed and shot " action sequences , Murray criticized Flame & Citron for " lean [ ing ] toward the handsome and thoughtful when it could stand to be a lot dirtier and more visceral " , citing Black Book as a " superb counter @-@ example " . Stempel declared that it " is not as exciting as " Black Book , " but Verhoeven was dealing with people having to make complex moral decisions instantaneously . Flame & Citron takes its time to turn the screws on its characters , and us . " Ella Taylor argued in favor of Flame & Citron , saying it " is the film that the horribly overrated Black Book could have been , had Paul Verhoeven not indulged in the puerile reversals of sensitive Nazis and treacherous partisans . " Fuchs also compared the moral dilemmas the characters have to deal with to Black Book and Steven Spielberg 's Munich but said Flame & Citron does not have " the splendid surrealish excess " and " the weird conflation of maternal bodies and motherlands " of the two films , respectively . Gleiberman could " feel the shadow of Steven Spielberg 's Munich hovering over Flame & Citron " .
Another film it was compared to was Inglourious Basterds ; Brad Auerbach , for Entertainment Today , wrote that " Whereas Inglorious Basterds contains a bevy of cleverly humorous moments as it builds to its climax , Flame & Citron is a calculated and somber treatment of an intriguingly difficult topic . " O 'Sullivan said that " Inglourious Basterds @-@ style wish fulfillment this isn 't , " and Burr dubbed it " the anti @-@ Inglourious Basterds " . O 'Sullivan said that it shared similarities to Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid as it is " the story of handsome rogues with guns . It 's fast @-@ paced , stylish and thrilling . But it also raises one tough question . " Kate Taylor , however , commented that as opposed to Cassidy and Kid , Flame and Citron " remain an imperfectly matched duo " . St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch 's Joe Williams said that in contrast to " lavish thrillers " Black Book , Inglourious Basterds and Avatar of Hollywood @-@ ish " heroic defiance " , Flame and Citron is " lean and psychological , rooted in the either @-@ or of wartime choices " .
= = = Art @-@ house film status = = =
Usually described as a drama or a thriller , Flame & Citron can also be classified as a historical drama , a war film , a war drama ( or a war thriller ) and a gangster drama . As it has been screened in art @-@ house theaters in the United States and Europe , it has also been described as an art @-@ house film . Lodge stated it has " stately middle @-@ arthouse stylings and thriller overtones " . Addiego commented that it " has the look , and sometimes the pacing , of a serious Hollywood picture , but it has an art @-@ house mood " . Nick Roddick of the London Evening Standard commented that " it could succumb to the Sod 's Law of foreign @-@ language cinema : make a arthouse movie too commercial and you risk losing both audiences . " Abeel opined , " This icy portrait of two assassins shooting Nazis point @-@ blank offers no Hollywood @-@ style uplift to mollify mainstream viewers . But Flame [ & Citron ] should pull in a niche group of World War II connoisseurs and will delight art @-@ house and fest audiences with its innovative mix of drama and history filtered through genre . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The film was nominated for fourteen Robert Awards , winning Best Costume Design , Best Make @-@ Up , Best Production Design , Best Sound , and Best Special Effects . Out of three Bodil Awards nominations , Flame & Citron won Best Cinematography . At the Zulu Awards , it won all three awards for which it was nominated . The film was also nominated for the European Film Awards , Marrakech International Film Festival , and Valladolid International Film Festival , but did not win any award .
= = Historical accuracy = =
The involvement of the Danish people with the Nazis and the assassinations committed by the resistance movement had been a taboo subject since World War II , with scholarly literature on the topic only being produced from the 1980s and 1990s . Contemporary works on Flammen and Citron have been scarce . Madsen opined , " I think they didn 't fit into the official storytelling on how Denmark behaved during the Second World War . " Many of the members of the resistance suffered from different traumas , became alcoholics or committed suicide and a very few survived . Because of this , in addition to conducting research for eight years in historical archives , Madsen and his crew interviewed surviving people related to them . Nonetheless , the film has sparked controversy among historians .
The depiction of Flammen 's death was challenged by Danish National Archives 's Peter Birkelund . In the film Flammen commits suicide in the basement of his house after the Gestapo find him , presumably because of Ketty 's betrayal . Birkelund , however , says Flammen was killed on a coastal road while the Gestapo was looking for another resistance member . In contrast , the filming of Citron 's death , which would require 250 soldiers , was consciously altered by Madsen for budgetary reasons .
Ketty 's depiction as a double agent and Flammen 's lover has also been contested by Birkelund . However , Madsen was sure about the affair and found in a Stockholm archive a receipt for 20 @,@ 000 Danish crowns given to her by the Gestapo two days after Flammen 's death . Her involvement with the Gestapo leader Hoffmann , and her refusal to talk about the topic , were the main reasons for Madsen 's conclusion .
In the film , Aksel Winther , who is based on Vilhelm Leifer , is the one who gives Flammen and Citron orders to kill . Birkelund pointed out that he had already moved to Sweden by the time of their assassinations , while Madsen stated he was sure Leifer gave orders before leaving the country . Also , they met Frode Jacobsen in a meeting in Sweden , and he is said to have given orders from there . Birkelund rejected the idea of Jacobsen giving orders , but Madsen said the meetings were created by him to show that the resistance movements of that time had approaches different from those of their present @-@ day counterparts .
Citron 's relationship with his wife was debated because historians doubt that she betrayed him , since she gave birth to their child shortly after his death . Madsen was sure the betrayal happened , but he took the liberty of affirming the couple did not get back together . Madsen declared , " I do not think it is morally tarnished to show that people have affairs with people they are not married to . It 's a beautiful description of a relationship that falls apart in a time that had great personal cost . "
Ole Ewé , a former member of BOPA — another group in the Danish resistance movement — disagreed with the description of the attempt to kill the Gestapo leader Hoffman on a road Roskildevej . In the film , the car had Nazi flags , and a soldier and his son are killed by the resistance 's sub @-@ machine guns . Ewé said that on that day he and other BOPA members were enlisted to kill Arno Oskar Hammeken , a Gestapo informer . Flammen , who also received tips about the informer 's whereabouts , appeared there and shot up the car . However , said Ewé , the man in the car was in civilian clothes and there were no Nazi flags on the car .
According to The Irish Times , " Flame & Citron has sparked an emotive public debate in Denmark that has drawn all sorts of pseudo @-@ experts out of the woodwork to debate the portrayal of the period and the two true @-@ life figures . " Madsen defended himself saying it was an interpretation that " though it may not correspond absolutely to reality , is somehow more true " . Mikkelsen stressed that they were the first " to do the original research , yet we suddenly had a lot of so @-@ called experts telling us how it really was and how we were wrong " . The actor affirmed not too much is known about the period and they hope it sparks the debate so " people will research and think some more about it " .
In the book Historicizing the Uses of the Past , edited by Helle Bjerg , Claudia Lenz and Erik Thorstensen , the authors compared the criticism Flame & Citron received for its historical representation to that received by Max Manus : Man of War , a Norwergian film also about the resistance . While Madsen 's film has been highly criticized by historians , Max Manus gained the status of " real past " and received only a few criticisms that were dismissed by resistance veterans , politicians and even the king Harald V. Bjer et al. argued that the difference in reception may be attributed to the films ' content , saying , " In stark contrast to Flame & Citron , [ Max Manus ] doesn 't challenge the notions of the right and the wrong side and the unambiguous good cause . "
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= Tony Adamle =
Anthony " Tony " Adamle ( May 15 , 1924 – October 7 , 2000 ) was a professional American football linebacker and fullback in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and the National Football League ( NFL ) . He played his entire career for the Cleveland Browns before retiring to pursue a medical degree .
Adamle grew up in Cleveland , Ohio and was a star fullback on his Collinwood High School football team . He attended Ohio State University in 1942 , but his college career was cut short by World War II . After a stint in the U.S. Air Force , Adamle returned to finish his education at Ohio State in 1946 . He soon dropped out of school , however , and joined the Browns . Cleveland won AAFC championships in each of Adamle 's first three years , after which the league folded and the Browns were absorbed by the more established NFL . Cleveland continued to succeed in the NFL , winning the 1950 championship and advancing to the 1951 championship but losing to the Los Angeles Rams . Adamle left the Browns after the 1951 season to pursue a medical degree , but he came out of retirement briefly in 1954 as the Browns won another NFL championship .
Adamle left football for good after the season , earning a medical degree from Western Reserve University in Cleveland in 1956 . He settled with his family in Kent , Ohio , where he ran a medical practice until his death in 2000 . He was a team physician for his local high school and for Kent State University for more than 35 years . Adamle 's son Mike played in the NFL as a fullback in the 1970s before retiring and becoming a sports broadcaster .
= = Early life and high school = =
Adamle was born in Fairmont , West Virginia to immigrants from Slovenia . His family moved to Cleveland when he was a child , and he attended Collinwood High School on the city 's east side . Adamle was a standout fullback on his high school team and made a Cleveland @-@ area All @-@ Star squad in 1941 that matched up against a team of stars from Florida . He was " without question the best high school player I have ever seen , " one Cleveland sports editor said after he was chosen as an all @-@ star . He was also named an All @-@ Ohio player by the Associated Press and United Press International and earned three varsity letters in football in high school .
= = College and military career = =
Adamle attended Ohio State University and was on the 1942 Ohio State Buckeyes freshman team , but left school prior to the 1943 season to fight in World War II . After serving in the U.S. Air Force in the Mediterranean Theatre of War , he returned to Ohio State for the team 's 1946 season — his only season with the varsity Buckeyes . Playing as a center in a November game against the Northwestern Wildcats , Adamle intercepted a Frank Aschenbrenner pass in the third quarter and returned it 38 yards . He had another interception in the fourth quarter of the 39 – 27 Buckeyes victory . Ohio State finished the season with a 4 – 3 – 2 record and Adamle was selected to play in the College All @-@ Star Game , a now @-@ defunct matchup between the National Football League ( NFL ) champion and a selection of the best college players from around the country .
= = Professional career = =
Adamle was eligible to play for the Buckeyes again in 1947 , but decided to leave school and join the Cleveland Browns of the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Adamle had been selected with the 105th pick in the 1947 NFL Draft by the Chicago Bears , and he told Cleveland head coach Paul Brown , who coached Ohio State 's varsity team between 1941 and 1943 , that he would join the Bears if the Browns did not sign him . " I would be a pretty sick fellow today , knowing what I do about Tony , if George Halas had gotten him , " Brown said before the season began .
Adamle 's decision to drop out was controversial because of rules that under normal circumstances would have barred him from playing professionally before graduating . The interruption of the war had forced the suspension of the rule to account for players ' military service , however , and he was allowed to leave college . The Browns denied that they encouraged Adamle to drop out . Adamle may have been convinced to join the Browns by Gene Fekete , Dante Lavelli , Lou Groza and Bill Willis , four Browns players who were back at Ohio State to finish their studies after the 1946 season .
With the Browns starting in the team 's 1947 season , Adamle played as a fullback . He competed with Marion Motley at the position , and said he was " not working to be a second @-@ stringer " . Adamle was a straight @-@ talker and was not afraid to stand up to Brown , a cold disciplinarian who was the team 's coach between 1946 and 1962 . Brown was impressed with Adamle 's candor and held him in respect . Before the seventh game of the 1947 season , a matchup against the Chicago Rockets that October , Adamle replaced Motley as the team 's starting fullback . Brown said that while he had not given up on Motley , a big back who had anchored the offense in the Browns ' early years , the former starter had " made a few mistakes lately that hurt us " and thought competition would be helpful . Adamle , who was about 15 pounds lighter than Motley , started for a brief time as part of an offense led by quarterback Otto Graham , registering 23 carries for 95 yards on the season , a career high . The Browns went on to finish the 1947 season with a 12 – 1 – 1 record and win the AAFC championship game against the New York Yankees . Adamle returned to Ohio State in the offseason to continue his studies .
By the team 's following season , Adamle was being used mostly on defense as a left @-@ side linebacker , and Motley was again the primary fullback . Cleveland had a perfect season in 1948 , winning all of its games and beating the Buffalo Bills in the championship . Adamle had 88 rushing yards and a touchdown that year .
Adamle filled in for an injured Motley at fullback for several games the following year while continuing to play as a linebacker . He had 64 rushing yards and made four interceptions , a career high . Cleveland again won the AAFC championship in 1949 , but the league then folded and the Browns were absorbed by the more established NFL .
Cleveland 's success continued in the NFL in its 1950 season as Adamle was named team captain , replacing Lou Saban following his retirement . The team won the 1950 NFL Championship Game , and Adamale was one of seven Browns players chosen to play in the first Pro Bowl , football 's all @-@ star game . He led the NFL with five fumble recoveries that year and was also named a second @-@ team All @-@ Pro by the New York Daily News .
Adamle was again one of eight Browns chosen for the Pro Bowl after Cleveland 's 1951 season , when the team reached the championship game but lost to the Los Angeles Rams . He was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro by United Press International and the New York Daily News after the season , when he had one interception and one fumble recovery . He was used mainly as an outside linebacker in Cleveland 's 5 @-@ 3 defense later in his career , only attempting three rushes in the 1950s . Adamle finished college at Kent State University in 1950 , earning a bachelor 's degree , and received a master 's degree in education from Western Reserve University in Cleveland in 1951 .
Upset by Brown 's criticisms of the defense in the 1951 championship game , Adamle left the Browns before the next season to enter medical school . Brown nevertheless traded the rights to Adamle to the Green Bay Packers as part of a deal that brought defensive back Ace Loomis to Cleveland . " We know Adamle is determined to enter medical school and informed the Packers it is very unlikely he would play any more football , " Brown said . The Packers hoped to get him to play part @-@ time while he was in school . Adamle spent most of 1952 working as an orderly at Glenville Hospital in Cleveland , entering Western Reserve 's medical school in September .
Adamle came out of retirement to play for the Browns at 30 years old in October 1954 . He had been working as a scout for the Chicago Cardinals and was in his third year of medical school ; he agreed to come back on the condition that he would only practice once a week so he could continue his studies . The Browns had advanced to the NFL championship game in both of the seasons he did not play , but lost both times to the Detroit Lions . In Cleveland 's 1954 season , the team reached the championship game and beat the Lions , 56 – 10 .
= = Medical career = =
Adamle quit football for good after the season and focused on his medical career . He received a medical degree from Western Reserve in 1956 . He settled in Kent , Ohio , where he ran a medical practice for the rest of his life . He also served as the team doctor for Theodore Roosevelt High School and Kent State University for more than 35 years . Adamle specialized in knee and neck injuries , and published articles about cold therapy and the use of Vitamin C in sports medicine . The Ohio High School Athletic Association named him the state 's Outstanding Team Physician in 1983 .
= = Later life and death = =
Adamle died in 2000 after a seven @-@ year battle with cancer . His son , Mike Adamle , was a running back at Roosevelt High School and Northwestern University , and played professionally as a fullback for the Kansas City Chiefs , New York Jets and Chicago Bears in the 1970s before becoming a sports broadcaster .
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= U.S. Route 202 in New Jersey =
U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) is a U.S. Highway running from New Castle , Delaware northeast to Bangor , Maine . In the U.S. state of New Jersey , the route runs 80 @.@ 31 mi ( 129 @.@ 25 km ) from the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Toll Bridge over the Delaware River at the Pennsylvania border in Delaware Township , Hunterdon County near Lambertville northeast to the New York border in Mahwah , Bergen County . Along the route 's journey , it passes through a variety of suburban and rural environments , including the communities of Flemington , Somerville , Morristown , Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills , Wayne , and Oakland as well as five counties : Hunterdon , Somerset , Morris , Passaic , and Bergen . US 202 encounters many major roads in New Jersey , including Route 31 , US 206 , US 22 , Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) , US 46 , Route 23 , and Route 17 . From Somerville to the New York border , US 202 generally runs within a close distance of I @-@ 287 and interchanges with that route several times . The road ranges from a four @-@ lane freeway between Lambertville and Ringoes in Hunterdon County to a two @-@ lane undivided road through much of the northern portion of the route . North of the Route 53 intersection in Morris Plains , US 202 is maintained by individual counties rather than the New Jersey Department of Transportation with a few exceptions .
In the original system of New Jersey state highways , present @-@ day U.S. Route 202 was legislated as pre @-@ 1927 Route 5 between Morristown and Morris Plains in 1916 and as pre @-@ 1927 Route 16 between Somerville and Morristown in 1921 . In 1927 , the current route was designated as Route 29 between Lambertville and Ringoes , Route 30 ( now Route 31 ) between Ringoes and Flemington , Route 12 between Flemington and Somerville , Route 31 ( now U.S. Route 206 ) between Somerville and Bedminster , Route 32 between Bedminster and Mountain View , and Route 23 within a portion of Wayne . Meanwhile , US 122 was signed in New Jersey to run from the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Bridge in Lambertville , where the route continued south to State Road , Delaware , along Bridge Street , Route 29 , and Route 30 to Flemington , and then along present @-@ day County Route 523 ( CR 523 ) to US 22 in White House . In the mid @-@ 1930s , US 122 was renumbered to US 202 , and realigned to follow its current route to New York border near Suffern , New York where it continued to Bangor , Maine . In 1953 , all the state highway designations were removed from US 202 except for Route 23 and Route 30 ( which became Route 69 before becoming Route 31 in 1967 ) to avoid long concurrencies with the route . In the 1960s , plans were made to upgrade US 202 to a freeway between the Pennsylvania border and I @-@ 287 in Bridgewater Township . The only parts of this freeway that were completed were a bypass of Ringoes in the 1960s and a freeway between the Delaware River and Ringoes in 1974 ; the rest was canceled due to opposition from residents along the route . With the completion of the US 202 freeway in Hunterdon County , the former alignment became Route 179 . The portion of US 202 concurrent with Route 23 in Wayne was upgraded from a four @-@ lane road to a six @-@ lane road in the 1980s .
= = Route description = =
= = = Hunterdon County = = =
U.S. Route 202 crosses into Delaware Township in Hunterdon County , New Jersey on the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Toll Bridge over the Delaware River from Solebury Township , Pennsylvania , heading to the northeast as a four @-@ lane freeway maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission . Shortly after entering New Jersey , the route passes over the Delaware and Raritan Canal comes to an interchange with Route 29 that features a northbound exit , a northbound entrance from southbound Route 29 , and a southbound entrance . The route becomes maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation here and crosses the Alexauken Creek into Lambertville where the route features a southbound exit and northbound entrance with Alexauken Creek Road that provides access to Route 29 from southbound U.S. Route 202 and to northbound U.S. Route 202 from northbound Route 29 . Past Alexauken Creek Road , the freeway enters West Amwell Township , where it heads through a mix of woodland and farmland . It comes to a diamond interchange with County Route 605 ( Queen Road ) , which provides access to Mount Airy and Dilts Corner . Past the County Route 605 interchange , U.S. Route 202 continues northeast through agricultural areas , paralleled by Frontage Road to the north . It crosses into East Amwell Township and features to a partial cloverleaf interchange with Route 179 . Past the Route 179 interchange , the road runs briefly through West Amwell Township before entering East Amwell Township again , bypassing the community of Ringoes . It comes to a partial interchange with Route 31 and County Route 579 , with access to southbound Route 31 and County Route 579 from both directions of U.S. Route 202 and access to northbound U.S. Route 202 from northbound Route 31 and County Route 579 .
Here , Route 31 begins a concurrency with U.S. Route 202 , and both routes continue north as a four @-@ lane divided surface road with jughandles , intersecting County Route 602 ( Wertsville Road ) . The next intersection is for Old York Road , which heads to the southwest as Route 179 and to the northeast as County Route 514 . Shortly past this intersection , the route briefly forms the border between East Amwell Township to the west and Raritan Township to the east before crossing entirely into Raritan Township . The road continues north through farms , reaching commercial development as it approaches the Flemington area . Past the intersection with County Route 611 ( South Main Street ) , the road widens to six lanes and crosses into Flemington . The road comes to the Flemington Circle where Route 31 heads north and Route 12 heads west .
Past the Flemington Circle , U.S. Route 202 proceeds northeast on a four @-@ lane divided highway that crosses back into Raritan Township . It heads through woodland , passing by Northlandz , which is home to the world 's largest model railroad in HO scale . The road crosses the South Branch Raritan River into Readington Township , where it heads east , passing over Norfolk Southern 's Lehigh Line north of Three Bridges . Past Three Bridges , the route runs through a mix of woods and farms .
= = = Somerset County = = =
U.S. Route 202 crosses into Branchburg Township , where it crosses Old York Road again . It continues northeast through agricultural areas with residences and businesses increasing along the road After crossing Old York Road ( County Route 637 ) another time , the route heads through suburban commercial areas . It passes over the North Branch Raritan River and enters Bridgewater Township , where it passes under New Jersey Transit ’ s Raritan Valley Line and runs past a shopping center . U.S. Route 202 heads east into Raritan , where it passes through business areas and crosses County Route 567 ( First Avenue ) . Past the County Route 567 intersection , the road comes to the modified Somerville Circle , where it intersects U.S. Route 206 and Route 28 . U.S. Route 202 passes over the circle with ramps to U.S. Route 206 and Route 28 , which head through the circle .
U.S. Route 206 forms a concurrency with U.S. Route 202 past the Somerville Circle and the two routes continue north through Bridgewater Township , briefly entering Somerville . The road features an interchange with U.S. Route 22 and heads north with the Bridgewater Commons shopping mall on the east side of the road and the Somerset Corporate Center on the west side of the road . An interchange with Commons Way provides access to both these places . Past Commons Way , the road passes under Garrettson Road and comes to an interchange with Interstate 287 that also provides access to Interstate 78 . Past the Interstate 287 interchange , U.S. Routes 202 and 206 continue north as a two @-@ lane undivided road with residences to the east and corporate parks to the west . The road crosses Chambers Brook into Bedminster Township , where it soon passes under Interstate 78 . Shortly after Interstate 78 , it widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway with a Jersey barrier that runs through a mix of commercial and residential areas . U.S. Routes 202 and 206 come to another interchange with Interstate 287 , pass over the North Branch Raritan River again , and come to an intersection where the two routes split .
Upon splitting from U.S. Route 206 , U.S. Route 202 heads north on Somerville Road , a two @-@ lane undivided road . It soon meets County Route 523 ( Main Street ) , and U.S. Route 202 makes a right turn to head to the northeast on Lamington Road . The route heads east through residential areas and crosses the North Branch Raritan River into Far Hills . Upon entering Far Hills , the route intersects County Route 512 ( Peapack Road ) , forming a concurrency that lasts with that route until County Route 512 heads south on Far Hills Road just before U.S. Route 202 crosses New Jersey Transit ’ s Gladstone Branch near the Far Hills Station . From here , the road heads northeast through wooded areas with some clearings and residences , crossing into Bernardsville . In Bernardsville , U.S. Route 202 heads through rural areas with trees and fields as Mine Brook Road before reaching the town itself . In the town , the route intersects County Route 525 ( Claremont Road ) , briefly running concurrent with that route until it heads south on Mt . Airy Road . From the center of Bernardsville , U.S. Route 202 runs northeast as Morristown Road , crossing into Bernards Township , where it heads through wooded residential areas . In Bernards Township , the road features an intersection with County Route 613 ( Childs Road ) and North Maple Avenue , the latter providing access to Interstate 287 .
= = = Morris County = = =
U.S. Route 202 crosses the Passaic River into Harding Township , Morris County , where the route becomes Mt . Kemble Avenue . The NJDOT replaced this bridge with a new bridge built in seven days during August 2012 . The new bridge was designed by AmerCom Corporation and built by Joseph M. Sanzari , Inc. utilizing Accelerated Bridge Construction techniques . In Harding Township , the road runs north through mostly runs through wooded residential and commercial areas , closely paralleling Interstate 287 , which runs to the east of U.S. Route 202 . It heads into more heavily wooded areas , running to the east of Morristown National Historical Park , before continuing northeast into Morris Township . Here , U.S. Route 202 continues through woodland , but residences start to increase along the road and it passes by an industrial facility . It passes by the Spring Brook Country Club before crossing into Morristown . Upon entering Morristown , the route heads toward the downtown area , where it splits into a one @-@ way pair following Market Street northbound and Bank Street southbound . The one @-@ way pair comes to Park Place , a square in the center of Morristown , where U.S. Route 202 meets County Route 510 and Route 124 . County Route 510 heads west from the square on Washington Street and east from the square on Morris Street , while Route 124 heads east from the square on South Street . Meanwhile , U.S. Route 202 continues north from Park Place on Speedwell Avenue , a two @-@ lane road that heads past numerous downtown businesses . The route then leaves the downtown area , heading through residential neighborhoods and crossing the Whippany River before leaving Morristown and crossing back into Morris Township , where it briefly passes through an area of businesses . At the intersection with County Route 650 ( Hanover Avenue ) , U.S. Route 202 crosses into Morris Plains , where it continues north through suburban commercial and residential areas . The route passes under New Jersey Transit ’ s Morristown Line near the Morris Plains Station and intersects the southern terminus of Route 53 ( Tabor Road ) .
Past the Route 53 intersection , maintenance of U.S. Route 202 is transferred from the New Jersey Department of Transportation to the county and it resumes northeast on Littleton Road , heading through residential areas . It enters an area of corporate parks as it crosses Route 10 and heads into Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills . After passing through the area of corporate parks , the road heads back through suburban neighborhoods before coming to an interchange with Interstate 80 . In the vicinity of the Interstate 80 interchange , U.S. Route 202 is state maintained . Past the interchange , U.S. Route 202 closely parallels Interstate 80 to the north as a four @-@ lane undivided road before coming to an intersection with County Route 511 ( Parsippany Boulevard ) , where U.S. Route 202 makes a left turn onto that route to form a concurrency .
The two routes continue north on Parsippany Boulevard , a two @-@ lane road that comes to an intersection with U.S. Route 46 , where the road is briefly state maintained . Past U.S. Route 46 , the road continues north , intersecting ramps that provide access to and from southbound Interstate 287 . Here , the road becomes county maintained again . It passes by business parks and then wooded residential areas , closely paralleling Interstate 287 again . At the intersection with Intervale Road , U.S. Route 202 and County Route 511 make a right turn , immediately interchanging with Interstate 287 , with access to the southbound direction and from the northbound direction . The routes follow Intervale Road briefly before making a left turn to resume onto Parsippany Boulevard . The road crosses over the Jersey City Reservoir , which supplies drinking water to Jersey City , and enters Boonton , where the road becomes Washington Street . This street carries the two routes through residential areas before coming to another interchange with Interstate 287 that also features access to the southbound direction and access from the northbound direction . Past this interchange , U.S. Route 202 splits from County Route 511 by heading to the northeast on Myrtle Avenue .
Myrtle Avenue carries U.S. Route 202 through commercial areas sandwiched by Interstate 287 to the southeast and New Jersey Transit ’ s Montclair @-@ Boonton Line . Along Myrtle Avenue , U.S. Route 202 features ramps to and from southbound Interstate 287 . The route crosses into Montville , where it becomes Main Road and runs a farther distance from Interstate 287 , heading north through residential areas . The road turns east and makes a left turn to head north on Main Street , which angles east and comes to an interchange with Interstate 287 . Past this interchange , U.S. Route 202 continues through commercial areas , crossing over the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line , before heading into residential neighborhoods , running parallel to the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line . After passing Towaco Station , the route makes a right turn , passes under the railroad line , immediately makes a left turn to resume on Main Street . The route heads east as a four @-@ lane road running to the south of the railroad tracks through residential areas , narrowing to two lanes . It enters Lincoln Park , where U.S. Route 202 intersects County Route 633 ( Boonton Turnpike ) , continuing east onto Boonton Turnpike . A short distance later , the route intersects County Route 511 Alternate ( Comly Road ) and forms a wrong @-@ way concurrency with that route . The two routes continue southeast through wooded residential neighborhoods , eventually running parallel to the Pompton River .
= = = Passaic County = = =
U.S. Route 202 and County Route 511 Alternate cross the Pompton River into Wayne , Passaic County , where the road becomes Mountainview Boulevard . It crosses the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line near the Mountain View Station and comes to an interchange with Route 23 , where County Route 511 Alternate ends and U.S. Route 202 heads north on Route 23 , a six @-@ lane freeway that is state maintained . The road interchanges with County Route 670 ( Alps Road ) and then with County Route 683 ( Newark @-@ Pompton Turnpike ) . Route 23 and U.S. Route 202 continue north from this point as a surface road through commercial areas . At a U @-@ turn ramp , the eastbound direction of County Route 504 follows both directions of the road , having to use the ramp in order to continue across the road . Northbound U.S. Route 202 splits from Route 23 , where the cut @-@ off intersection with County Route 504 is located . At this point , the westbound direction of County Route 504 and the southbound direction of U.S. Route 202 follow southbound Route 23 until an intersection .
Past Route 23 and County Route 504 , U.S. Route 202 heads north on Black Oak Ridge Road , a county maintained road that heads through residential neighborhoods . The road comes to an intersection with County Route 689 ( Paterson @-@ Hamburg Turnpike ) , where U.S. Route 202 merges onto that road , forming a concurrency . The Paterson @-@ Hamburg Turnpike heads north past some businesses , running a short distance to the east of the Ramapo River , before coming to Terhune Drive , where U.S. Route 202 makes a right turn onto that road with County Route 689 continuing north on Paterson @-@ Hamburg Turnpike . Terhune Drive carries U.S. Route 202 north through wooded neighborhoods , running in between Pines Lake to the east and Pompton Lake , which is part of the Ramapo River , to the west .
= = = Bergen County = = =
U.S. Route 202 crosses into Oakland , Bergen County , where the route becomes Ramapo Valley Road . In Bergen County , U.S. Route 202 is cosigned with County Route 91 . In Oakland , the route turns east and passes the Long Hill Mall , where it makes a left turn to continue north along Ramapo Valley Road with County Route 93 continuing straight on Long Hill Road . U.S. Route 202 heads north through commercial areas of the town , where it passes by the Coppertree Mall , before coming to an interchange with Interstate 287 . In the vicinity of this interchange , the route is maintained by the state . Past the Interstate 287 interchange , the road continues northeast through residential areas , crossing into Mahwah . Here , the route parallels the Ramapo River again , which runs to the west of the road . U.S. Route 202 passes through wooded residential areas before passing by Ramapo College of New Jersey . It passes under Interstate 287 and continues northeast , coming to an interchange with Route 17 . Past this interchange , U.S. Route 202 heads east and then north through more dense neighborhoods . It passes under a railroad line that serves as part of both New Jersey Transit ’ s Main Line and Bergen County Line before immediately coming to an intersection with County Route 507 ( Franklin Turnpike ) . Here , U.S. Route 202 makes a left turn onto this road and heads 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 05 km ) north to the New York state line where it continues into Suffern , New York as Orange Avenue .
= = History = =
= = = Old roads = = =
The alignment of U.S. Route 202 followed portions of many historical roads , including Old York Road , a historical 18th @-@ century road that linked Philadelphia to New York City ; the Paterson @-@ Hamburg Turnpike , which was chartered on March 3 , 1806 to run from Passaic to the Pennsylvania border ; and the Union Turnpike , which was chartered on February 23 , 1804 to run from Morristown to the Pennsylvania border . When the original system of New Jersey state highways was established , the current routing of U.S. Route 202 was legislated as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 5 between Morristown and present @-@ day Route 53 in Morris Plains in 1916 and as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 16 between Somerville and Morristown in 1921 . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , present @-@ day U.S. Route 202 was legislated as part of Route 29 between Lambertville and Ringoes , Route 30 ( now Route 31 ) between Ringoes and Flemington , Route 12 between Flemington and Somerville , Route 31 ( now U.S. Route 206 ) between Somerville and Bedminster , Route 32 from Bedminster to Mountain View , and Route 23 through a portion of Wayne . Also , by 1927 , U.S. Route 122 was signed to run from the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Bridge over the Delaware River in Lambertville , where it continued south all the way to State Road , Delaware , to White House , following locally maintained Bridge Street in Lambertville , Route 29 between Lambertville and Ringoes , Route 30 between Ringoes and Flemington , and present @-@ day County Route 523 from Flemington to U.S. Route 22 in White House .
Eventually , Route 29 was realigned to follow present @-@ day U.S. Route 202 between Ringoes and Somerville , replacing Route 12 between Flemington and Somerville . In the mid @-@ 1930s , U.S. Route 122 was renumbered to U.S. Route 202 and was rerouted to head from Flemington to the New York border at Suffern , where it would continue to Bangor , Maine . U.S. Route 202 would follow newly built Route 29 from Flemington northeast to Somerville ; Route 31 north to Bedminster ; Route 32 northeast to Mountain View , which was state maintained south of Route 5N ( now Route 53 ) in Morris Plains ; Route 23 in Wayne ; and county roads from Route 23 northeast to the New York border . In 1948 , Bridge Street in Lambertville from the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Bridge to Route 29 was designated as Route S29 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which eliminated long concurrencies between U.S. and state routes , many of the state routes that followed U.S. Route 202 were removed from the route . Route 29 was removed from U.S. Route 202 and rerouted to follow former Route 29A to Frenchtown , and Routes S29 , 31 , and 32 were entirely eliminated . In addition , Route 30 was renumbered to Route 69 as it conflicted with U.S. Route 30 in southern New Jersey .
= = = Freeway upgrades = = =
Plans for a limited @-@ access highway along the U.S. Route 202 corridor date back to 1932 when a parkway was planned to continue into Pennsylvania along U.S. Route 202 ; this proposal never came to fruition . In the 1960s , a bypass around Ringoes opened for U.S. Route 202 and Route 69 ( which became Route 31 in 1967 ) with the former alignment of U.S. Route 202 through town becoming Route 179 . In 1966 , a freeway was proposed along the U.S. Route 202 corridor between the Pennsylvania border and Interstate 287 in Bridgewater Township . The portion of this freeway between the Pennsylvania border and the Route 179 interchange in Ringoes was legislated in 1969 with the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Toll Bridge opening in 1971 . The freeway opened in October 1974 , and the former alignment of U.S. Route 202 between Lambertville and Ringoes became an extension of Route 179 . Meanwhile , the portion of the proposed U.S. Route 202 freeway between Lambertville and Bridgewater Township was cancelled due to opposition from residents along the route .
In the 1980s , upgrades were made to the portion of U.S. Route 202 concurrent with Route 23 . This portion of road , which was originally a four @-@ lane undivided road , saw an upgrade to a six @-@ lane freeway south of the Alps Road interchange and to a six @-@ lane surface road north of there . Construction on these improvements was completed in 1986 . There were also plans to replace the Flemington Circle with an interchange as part of a project that would have also built a limited @-@ access bypass of Flemington for Route 31 ; however , this plan was never realized .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Rivington =
Rivington is a small village and civil parish of the Borough of Chorley , Lancashire , England , occupying 2 @,@ 538 acres ( 10 @.@ 27 km2 ) . It is about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) southeast of Chorley and about 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) northwest of Bolton . Rivington is situated on the fringe of the West Pennine Moors , at the foot of Rivington Pike . According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 it had a population of 144 , reducing to 109 at the 2011 Census .
Life in the Middle Ages centred on the families who owned the manor in what was then an isolated rural community . Agriculture , hand loom weaving , quarrying and mining occupied the few inhabitants until the middle of the 19th century . A chapel built before 1541 was replaced by the present church in 1666 and by 1703 Nonconformism led to the building of a Presbyterian church , now a Unitarian Chapel . A grammar school was founded by charter of Queen Elizabeth I in 1556 .
Construction of reservoirs for Liverpool Corporation in the mid @-@ 19th century led to a decrease in the population when farms were cleared , the valley flooded and property in the western part of the village demolished . William Lever bought the Rivington Hall estate at the turn of the 20th century and used his wealth to renovate the old barns and create a large public park .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The origin of the name Rivington is unclear , but is made up of three elements . The first element Riv- comes from either the rowan plants or from the Old English word hreof meaning rough . The second element -ing- usually referred to a place belonging to a person , but in the case of Rivington the element seems to have crept in over the years . The last element comes from the Old English word " tun " meaning a farmstead or settlement . Together the name Rivington may mean " a settlement in the rowans " or " a rough farmstead " .
Rivington has been recorded in many ways in earlier centuries , Rowinton , Rawinton , and Revington were used in 1202 ; Ruhwinton in 1212 , Riuiton in 1226 , Rowynton and Rouynton in 1278 , Roynton in 1332 , Rouyngton in 1400 , Revyngton although rare , and Rovington and Ryvington from the 16th century .
= = = Early history = = =
It is possible that settlements have existed in the area around Rivington since the Bronze Age . Arrowheads , a flint knife , scrapers and the remains of cremations were excavated from a Bronze Age cairn at Noon Hill in 1958 and 1963 – 64 . It is possible that the name Coblowe on the eastern bank of the Lower Rivington Reservoir derives from the Old English hlaw , a hill , which denoted an ancient barrow or burial place . Evidence for the existence of a settlement here in Anglo @-@ Saxon times is found in the Rivington and Coblowe names .
= = = Manor = = =
In 1212 Alexander de Pilkington held six oxgangs of land in thanage , the majority of land in the Manor of Rivington , and in 1290 it became home to a junior branch of the Pilkington family . Robert Pilkington extended the original Rivington Hall in the 15th century . Rivington Hall Barn is variously dated from Saxon times to the 16th century . Robert 's son , Richard , rebuilt the chapel . Richard ’ s son James Pilkington , Bishop of Durham from 1560 – 75 , founded Rivington Grammar School .
After the death of George Pilkington ( 1516 – 97 ) , the estate passed to his son , Robert , but it was by then in decline . Robert died in 1605 . In 1611 , the Pilkingtons sold Rivington Hall estate to Robert Lever and Thomas Breres .
A quarter of the manor was owned by the Lathoms and an eighth by the Shaws . In the 18th century the Shaws sold their land to Lord Willoughby of Parham . On the death of Hugh Willoughby the 15th baron in 1765 the Shaws and Roscoes inherited his estates .
In 1729 John Andrews of Little Lever bought the Breres ' share of the manor and was responsible for building the Pike Tower in 1733 . His descendant , Robert Andrews , partially rebuilt Rivington Hall in red brick in the Georgian style in 1774 . After Andrew 's death the property passed to his sister Hannah Maria Andrews , who had married Robert Fletcher of Liverpool . Their daughter , Lucy , married Woodhouse Crompton in 1834 and their descendants remained resident at the hall until 1910 . In 1900 the Cromptons sold their interest in the manor and estate of 2 @,@ 169 acres ( 8 @.@ 78 km2 ) to William Hesketh Lever . The Rivington Hall estate was acquired by compulsory purchase by Liverpool Corporation in 1902 as part of the reservoir scheme . William Lever created a 364 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 47 km2 ) park to the north of the reservoir , Lever Park . He donated the park to the town of Bolton and after his death the park was owned by Liverpool Corporation . The land is owned by United Utilities .
= = = Industries = = =
Foundations of a building that was perhaps a water mill or the manor corn mill are to be found opposite Mill Hill Cottages next to where a possible mill pond was shown on the 1848 first edition Ordnance Survey map .
Until the 19th century Rivington was a rural village built around what is now the village green . Its inhabitants were employed in agriculture on scattered local farms , hand loom weaving in their own homes , working in the local quarries or the small coal mines on Winter Hill . Wilderswood Colliery , owned by Nicholas Fish , appeared in the 1869 Mines List . Coal mining was on a very small scale ; in 1896 the Rivington Moor Colliery employed two workers mining coal from the Mountain coal seam for own or local use .
At Tiger 's Clough , in the River Douglas valley , close to the boundary with Horwich , the Knoll Bleachworks and a calico @-@ printing works were operating before 1800 . They were demolished by Liverpool Corporation as part of the reservoir scheme in the 1860s .
= = = Reservoirs = = =
Rivington was dramatically changed by the construction of the Anglezarke , Upper Rivington , Lower Rivington and Yarrow reservoirs which were built to provide Liverpool with a safe , clean water supply . Nine properties in the valley were demolished before construction work began . The Rivington Pike Scheme , still in use today , was undertaken by Thomas Hawksley between 1850 and 1857 . The scheme was to construct five reservoirs and a water treatment works at the south end of Lower Rivington with a 17 @-@ mile ( 27 km ) pipeline to storage reservoirs at Prescot . Water from two higher level reservoirs , Rake Brook and Lower Ruddlesworth , was carried south in the Goit , a man @-@ made channel connecting them to the lower reservoirs . The scheme was expanded in 1856 , to include High Bullough Reservoir , built in 1850 by J. F. Bateman to supply water to Chorley . The scheme was further expanded by the construction of the Upper Roddlesworth Reservoir in 1867 – 75 by Thomas Duncan and Joseph Jackson . Yarrow Reservoir , on which work began in 1867 , was designed by Thomas Duncan , the Liverpool Borough Engineer .
In 1900 Liverpool Corporation attempted to acquire the entire area to safeguard its water supply , and proposed to demolish the entire village . Some buildings were protected and others left vulnerable in an Act of Parliament known as the Liverpool Corporation Act 1902 . This allowed the corporation to acquire by compulsory purchase properties in the west of the village , including the Black @-@ a @-@ Moors Head public house and the New Hall , which were demolished between 1902 and 1905 . The result was the small settlement that has remained largely unchanged since then .
= = Governance = =
Rivington was a township in the ecclesiastical parish of Bolton le Moors , in the Salford hundred in Lancashire . It became part of the Chorley Poor Law Union , formed in 1837 , and took responsibility for the administration and funding of the Poor Law in that area . In 1866 Rivington became a civil parish . It became part of the Chorley Rural Sanitary District from 1875 to 1894 , and part of the Chorley Rural District from 1894 to 1974 .
Since 1974 Rivington has been a civil parish of the Borough of Chorley , which comprises 47 councillors each elected for 4 @-@ year terms to represent wards in the borough . In May 2010 the constitution of the Chorley council was Conservatives had 27 seats , Labour 15 seats , Liberal Democrats 3 seats and Independents 2 seats . Rivington is part of the Heath Charnock and Rivington ward and in 2010 elected a Conservative councillor , Pat Case , CBE , who is deputy leader of the council . Chorley is part of the Lancashire County Council created in 1889 under the Local Government Act 1888 and reconstituted under the Local Government Act 1972 . Rivington is part of the Chorley Rural East ward .
Rivington is part of the Chorley parliamentary constituency , which elected Lindsay Hoyle as Member of Parliament for the Labour party at the 2010 General Election .
= = Geography = =
Rivington is situated on the moorland fringe between the high unenclosed moorland of the West Pennine Moors and the fields below . The landscape is characterised by marginal pastures with isolated farmsteads , reservoirs and disused mines and quarries scattered across the hillsides . There is an extensive network of footpaths providing public access . The reservoir valleys are dominated by expanses of water and the Victorian gothic architecture of the dams and embankments surrounded by woodland .
To the east of Rivington is Rivington Pike and to the west the flatter land of the Lancashire Plain . Rivington is north of Horwich and Bolton and to the south of Anglezarke Moor and Yarrow Reservoir . To the west of the village is the wide shallow valley containing the Anglezarke , Upper and Lower Rivington reservoirs . The village is accessed from the west by a road on top of the 876 @-@ foot ( 267 m ) long Horrobin Embankment , a dam that separates the Upper and Lower Rivington reservoirs . The River Douglas has its source on Winter Hill , and flows in a southwest direction forming part of the southern boundary . The River Yarrow has its source on Anglezarke Moor and forms the northern boundary . The area of the township is 2 @,@ 768 acres ( 11 @.@ 20 km2 ) , the reservoirs and filter beds occupy 275 acres ( 1 @.@ 11 km2 ) .
The underlying geology is Millstone Grit overlaid with coal measures . Gritstone was quarried for building stone in the area . Around Rivington are chalybeate springs and in Dean Wood is a waterfall with a descent of 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) .
= = Demography = =
In 2001 , 144 people lived in Rivington , 63 males and 81 females . There were 48 households of which 34 lived in detached houses and 14 in terraced or semi @-@ detached properties . Most households , 60 % , were owner @-@ occupied ; the remainder were privately rented . The mean age of the population was 53 @.@ 4 years . In 2001 most of those employed , 47 , worked in the service industries . Ten worked in extractive and manufacturing industries , and three males were unemployed . The average distance travelled to work by employed persons was 20 @.@ 5 km .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Economy = =
In the 19th century farming became less economic when construction of the reservoirs reduced the amount of agricultural land in the village . The weaving industry was mechanised , small mines closed and the population declined further when properties in the village were demolished in the early 20th century . Agriculture , mainly sheep farming , continues although on a small scale . Tourism at Rivington began in Victorian times and after the reservoirs were filled in the 1860s was known as the Little Lake District . Rivington became a popular destination when Lever Park opened in 1904 . From the late Victorian period until the mid @-@ 20th century tourists from Bolton travelled on day trips by tram along Chorley New Road and then on to Rivington on foot , many more visitors arrived by train . Today thousands of visitors are attracted to the village , Rivington Pike and Lever Park every year , making tourism the most significant source of income in the area .
= = Transport = =
Rivington is to the east to the M61 motorway , which connects the M6 and Preston to the north with the M60 and the Greater Manchester conurbation to the south . The nearest access is at Junction 6 . The village is accessed by minor roads from Horwich to the south and Adlington to the west . A winding road to the north passes through Anglezarke and a road over the moors to the east leads to Belmont . The nearest places with regular bus services are Horwich to the south and Adlington to the west , which are served by buses between Bolton and Chorley or Preston .
The arrival of the Manchester and Bolton Railway 's extension to Preston and opening of Blackrod railway station in 1841 brought visitors to the area . The line remains open with stations at Blackrod and Horwich Parkway giving access to Bolton , Manchester , Chorley and Preston .
= = Education = =
Rivington Grammar School 's charter was granted to James Pilkington by Queen Elizabeth I in 1566 . The school opened in 1575 and was rebuilt in 1714 . Blackrod Grammar School , founded in 1568 , merged with it in 1875 . In 1882 Rivington & Blackrod Grammar School opened on a site at the south of the township , close to the boundary with Horwich . The school is now Rivington and Blackrod High School , a specialist technology college , focusing on design and technology , mathematics and science . Year Seven pupils occupy the former Horwich County Secondary School .
The old grammar school building in the village centre is now occupied by Rivington Foundation Primary School .
= = Religion = =
Rivington was a chapelry in the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Bolton le Moors until it became a parish in its own right in 1856 . Rivington Church is built on a hill known as Chapel Croft . An earlier chapel on this site was named in a deed by Margaret Pilkington and her son Robert in 1476 . The parochial chapelry covered Rivington and the surrounding areas of Anglezarke , Hemshaws and Foulds . In 1628 a chapel was built " upon a little toft and quillet of land " by the local population and where divine service was celebrated " for many years of antiquity " . The early 16th century chapel was rebuilt in 1666 and altered and restored during the late 19th century . It is a small plain building built in sandstone with a bell turret . It is an Anglican church and is unusual in that it is not dedicated to any saint or martyr , referred to simply as Rivington Church .
Rivington Unitarian Chapel was built with a bellcote of local stone in 1703 . Originally founded as a Presbyterian church and became Unitarian in the late 18th century . The chapel , which retains its box pews , was restored in 1990 . Both churches are listed buildings and active places of worship .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Rivington conservation area = = =
There are a number of listed buildings in Rivington , most of which have Grade II , but two have the higher Grade II * status . They are spread throughout the village and Lever Park , and include the tower on top of Rivington Pike .
There are eight listed properties in the Rivington conservation area , almost half of the houses in the village . Listed buildings include the former vicarage , the Manse House and a row of cottages , one of which was the post office , two rows of cottages at Mill Hill and Pilkington 's Farmhouse , all of which are private residences . Rivington Church and the Unitarian Chapel are active places of worship ; the former grammar school is now a primary school .
The village stocks on the green are inscribed " T W 1719 " on the stone base . The churchwarden and village constable patrolled the village and anyone disregarding the sanctity of the sabbath would be bound in them .
Outside the village centre , the Georgian Rivington Hall , the adjacent Hall Barn and Great House Barn , which is possibly a tithe barn , are all listed buildings . Great House Farm now houses an information centre .
= = = Lever Park = = =
Lever Park is a designed landscape between the open moorland and the chain reservoirs which incorporates the village and buildings of Rivington into the overall design and is " one of the largest and most impressive examples of landscape design in Edwardian England " . It is of national importance and historical significance but has been neglected and has deteriorated . Situated on the east bank of the Lower Rivington reservoir , the park is named after William Lever , Lord Leverhulme , who bought the estate in 1900 and donated 364 acres ( 1 @.@ 47 km2 ) of land to the people of his native Bolton as a public park . Under the terms of a compulsory purchase order , William Lever was allowed to continue with plans to lay out Lever Park at his own expense , and he maintained it during his lifetime . The park opened in 1904 and contained a boating lake , a zoo , tree @-@ lined avenues and a network of footpaths . A folly , Rivington Castle , was built as a scale replica of Liverpool Castle at Coblowe Hillock near the Lower Rivington Reservoir . Lodges were built at the entrances to the estate , including Stone House Lodge at the main driveway .
Roynton Cottage , originally a single @-@ storey wooden bungalow , and its extensive gardens were the private property of William Lever , which he used for weekend visits and entertaining , high on the hillside below Rivington Pike . The bungalow was destroyed in an arson attack by suffragette , Edith Rigby , on 8 July 1913 . Its replacement was built of stone . Thomas Mawson designed the 45 @-@ acre ( 180 @,@ 000 m2 ) gardens between 1905 and 1922 . The private gardens contained terraces and a pool , a Japanese lake and pagoda , Italian @-@ style gardens , a seven @-@ arched bridge and the Pigeon Tower with Lady Leverhulme 's sewing room on the top floor .
After Lever 's death Roynton Cottage was acquired by the Bolton brewer , John Magee . During the Second World War the bungalow was requisitioned to be used as a billet for troops , and nissen huts were erected in the grounds . After the war the site was acquired by Liverpool Corporation , who decided to demolish the building .
In 1974 the park and gardens passed to the North West Water Authority from Liverpool Corporation , and to United Utilities on privatisation , and are maintained as a public country park for the people of Bolton , protected by rights afforded by the Liverpool Corporation Act 1902 ensuring " Free and uninterrupted enjoyment by the public " . The listed historic landscape of Lever Park now forms part of Rivington County Park and is used for recreation .
= = Sport = =
The Rivington Pike Fell Race has been held on Easter Saturday since 1892 . The fell race originally started from the Horwich railway works , but since 1930 from the park entrance at Lever Park Avenue . It now attracts around 400 runners . The course is 3 @.@ 25 miles ( 5 @.@ 2 km ) and there is a 700 @-@ foot ( 213 m ) ascent .
The area around Rivington and Anglezarke was the location for the 2002 Commonwealth Games mountain biking competition . The area is well used by hikers and hillwalkers . The Holcombe Hunt meets each year at Rivington Hall Barn .
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= Joe Hewitt ( RAAF officer ) =
Air Vice Marshal Joseph Eric ( Joe ) Hewitt , CBE ( 13 April 1901 – 1 November 1985 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . A Royal Australian Navy officer who transferred permanently to the Air Force in 1928 , he commanded No. 101 ( Fleet Cooperation ) Flight in the early 1930s , and No. 104 ( Bomber ) Squadron RAF on exchange in Britain shortly before World War II . Appointed the RAAF 's Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in 1941 , Hewitt was posted the following year to Allied Air Forces Headquarters , South West Pacific Area , as Director of Intelligence . In 1943 , he took command of No. 9 Operational Group , the RAAF 's main mobile strike force , but was controversially sacked by the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , less than a year later over alleged morale and disciplinary issues .
Described as a " small , dapper man " who was " outspoken , even ' cocky ' " , Hewitt overcame the setback to his career during the war and made his most significant contributions afterwards , as Air Member for Personnel from 1945 to 1948 . Directly responsible for the demobilisation of thousands of wartime staff and the consolidation of what was then the world 's fourth largest air force into a much smaller peacetime service , he also modernised education and training within the RAAF . Hewitt was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1951 , the same year he became Air Member for Supply and Equipment . Retiring from the military in 1956 , he went into business and later managed his own publishing house . He wrote two books including Adversity in Success , a first @-@ hand account of the South West Pacific air war , before his death in 1985 at the age of 84 .
= = Early career = =
Born on 13 April 1901 in Tylden , Victoria , Joe Hewitt was the son of Reverend J.H. Hewitt . He attended Scotch College , Melbourne , before entering the Royal Australian Naval College at Jervis Bay in 1915 , aged 13 . Graduating in 1919 , Hewitt rose to lieutenant in the RAN before volunteering for secondment to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a flight lieutenant in January 1923 . He undertook the pilots ' course at No. 1 Flying Training School , Point Cook , and graduated at the end of the year . Hewitt was further seconded to the Royal Air Force on 4 May 1925 , holding a temporary commission as a flying officer ; this commission was cancelled on 25 September . He married Lorna Bishop on 10 November ; they had three daughters .
Hewitt joined the newly formed No. 101 ( Fleet Cooperation ) Flight , operating Seagull III amphibians , in August 1926 . Prior to the unit deploying to Queensland to survey the Great Barrier Reef with HMAS Moresby , he practiced manoeuvres around the centre of Melbourne , landing in the Yarra River near Flinders Street Station . Media criticism of the escapade led to him being brought before the Chief of the Air Staff , Group Captain Richard Williams , who rather than upbraiding Hewitt expressed himself " reservedly pleased about the publicity " . After completing its survey work in November 1928 , the unit served aboard the seaplane carrier HMAS Albatross .
Hewitt 's transfer to the Air Force had been made permanent in 1928 . He became commanding officer of No. 101 Flight in February 1931 , and supervised embarkation of the Seagull aboard the cruiser HMAS Australia in September – October 1932 , by which time he had been promoted to squadron leader . Finishing his tour with No. 101 Flight the following year , Hewitt was posted to Britain in 1934 . He attended RAF Staff College , Andover , in his first year abroad , and served as Assistant Liaison Officer at Australia House , London , in 1935 . Although a specialist seaplane pilot , he converted to bombers while in England , flying Hawker Hinds and Bristol Blenheims as the commanding officer of No. 104 Squadron RAF from 1936 .
Returning to Australia in 1938 , Hewitt was appointed senior air staff officer at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , and by July that year had been promoted wing commander . In May 1939 , he was chosen to lead No. 10 Squadron , due to be formed on 1 July at the recently established RAAF Station Rathmines , near Lake Macquarie . Hewitt was preparing to depart for England to take delivery of the unit 's planned complement of Short Sunderland flying boats when he broke his neck riding his motor cycle near Richmond , and had to forgo the assignment while he recovered . Fit for duty by August , he was given command of the Rathmines base to manage the deployment of No. 10 Squadron and its aircraft , but this was suspended due to the outbreak of World War II in September , and the Sunderlands and their RAAF crews remained in Britain for service alongside the RAF .
= = World War II = =
= = = Director of Personnel Services to AOC No. 9 Operational Group = = =
On 20 November 1939 , the RAAF formed No. 1 Group in Melbourne , which evolved into Southern Area Command early in 1940 with Hewitt as senior administration staff officer . Having been promoted group captain , he was made Director of Personnel Services ( DPS ) after completing his posting to Southern Area , and was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire on 11 July . Described as having " a Calvinist background and rigid ideas on women 's place in society " , as DPS he opposed the creation of the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) and later advocated that its members be enrolled on a contractual basis rather than enlisted or commissioned as Permanent Air Force staff . In 1941 , Hewitt became Assistant Chief of the Air Staff , before being assigned in April the following year to the newly formed Allied Air Forces Headquarters ( AAF HQ ) , South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , as Director of Intelligence . He established cordial working relations with his American peers at AAF HQ , becoming a confidant of its commander , Major General George Kenney .
Promoted air commodore , in February 1943 Hewitt was appointed Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) No. 9 Operational Group ( No. 9 OG ) . The RAAF 's premier mobile strike force , No. 9 OG initially comprised seven Australian combat squadrons and came under the control of the US Fifth Air Force . The month he took over , Hewitt 's squadrons were reorganised into two wings based in New Guinea : No. 71 Wing , comprising units at Milne Bay , New Guinea , and No. 73 Wing , comprising those at Port Moresby . In March , No. 9 OG led the RAAF 's contribution to the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , " the decisive aerial engagement " in the SWPA according to General Douglas MacArthur , resulting in 12 Japanese ships being sunk .
By April 1943 , Hewitt had been dragged into the divisive personal conflict between the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , and the AOC of RAAF Command , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock . RAAF Command was the Air Force 's main operational formation in the Pacific , controlling 24 Australian squadrons . Jones , administrative and de jure head of the RAAF , sought to extend his authority into the sphere of operations by posting a " more accountable " officer into Bostock 's position , namely Hewitt . The Minister for Air , Arthur Drakeford , backed Jones ' manoeuvre but was informed by Prime Minister John Curtin that General MacArthur , as Supreme Commander SWPA , " would insist on the replacement of AVM Bostock by an equally able officer " , and that " Air Commodore Hewitt ... was not considered an adequate replacement . "
No changes were made to command arrangements in the South West Pacific following this episode , and Hewitt continued to lead No. 9 OG in its bombing and strafing campaign against Japanese airfields and lines of communication in New Britain , north @-@ east of New Guinea . By mid @-@ June 1943 , he had set up Group Headquarters at Milne Bay , and No. 73 Wing HQ at Goodenough Island . On 22 July , he mounted an operation against Gasmata airfield using 62 aircraft from five of his squadrons , the largest strike undertaken by the Australians to that date . No. 9 OG would take most of the credit for the RAAF reaching a peak of 254 tons of bombs dropped in October , as against 137 tons delivered the previous month . On 8 November , Hewitt sent out a formation of three Bristol Beauforts in a severe electrical storm to attack the heavily defended harbour at Rabaul . This was conceived as a " make or break " effort to prove the worth or otherwise of the Beaufort as a torpedo bomber , in which role it had so far been a disappointment ; in what the official history of the RAAF in World War II described as " an heroic attack " , at least one enemy tanker was struck , for the loss of one Beaufort .
= = = AOC No. 9 Operational Group to Air Member for Personnel = = =
Although Hewitt was performing an " excellent job " according to Fifth Air Force commander Major General Ennis Whitehead , he was controversially removed from his post in mid @-@ November 1943 by Air Vice Marshal Jones , over accusations of poor discipline and morale within No. 9 OG . RAAF historian Alan Stephens later described the circumstances of Hewitt 's dismissal as " murky " , and the allegations leading to it as unofficial . Drakeford defended Hewitt 's service record , informing the Prime Minister that " the present position may be largely , if not entirely , due to some temporary physical stress brought about by the strain of his important duties as A.O.C. of No. 9 Group . " Hewitt himself believed that he had been smeared by a disgruntled former staff officer ; historian Kristen Alexander identified Wing Commander Kenneth Ranger , who would play a leading part in the " Morotai Mutiny " of 1945 , as having made allegations regarding Hewitt 's supposed " lack of balance , vanity and lack of purpose in the prosecution of the war " . As a result , Hewitt returned to his previous position as Director of Intelligence at Allied Air Headquarters , while the Air Member of Personnel , Air Commodore Frank Lukis , took over as AOC No. 9 OG in December . General Kenney considered Hewitt 's removal " bad news " .
After completing his tour as Director of Intelligence at AAF HQ at the end of 1944 , Hewitt became acting Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) in 1945 . As AMP , Hewitt sat on the Air Board , the RAAF 's controlling body that consisted of its most senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . Along with the other members of the board , he reviewed the findings of the inquiry by Justice John Vincent Barry into the " Morotai Mutiny " , which had involved senior pilots of the Australian First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) attempting to resign their commissions to protest the relegation of RAAF fighter squadrons to strategically unimportant ground attack missions . Hewitt recommended that the AOC No. 1 TAF , Air Commodore Harry Cobby , be removed from command , along with his two senior staff officers . The majority of the Air Board saw no reason to take such action , leaving Hewitt to append a dissenting note to its decision . Drakeford supported Hewitt 's position , and the three senior No. 1 TAF officers were later dismissed from their posts by Air Vice Marshal Jones .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Demobilisation and rationalisation = = =
Hewitt 's appointment as Air Member for Personnel was made permanent following the end of World War II in August 1945 . In this role he was directly responsible for the demobilisation of what had become the world 's fourth largest air force , and its transition to a much smaller peacetime service . Hewitt considered that the RAAF was in danger of losing some of its best staff through rapid , unplanned demobilisation , and recommended that its workforce be stabilised for two years at a strength of 20 @,@ 000 while it reviewed its post @-@ war requirements . Although the Air Board supported Hewitt 's proposal , government cost @-@ cutting resulted in the strength of the so @-@ called Interim Air Force remaining lower than planned , being reduced to some 13 @,@ 000 by October 1946 and under 8 @,@ 000 by the end of 1948 . Despite claiming that employing women in the Air Force was an important factor in reducing " antagonism and prejudice " against them in the work force in general , Hewitt also recommended that the WAAAF be disbanded after the war .
As AMP , Hewitt was responsible for reviewing the potential employment of senior officers in the post @-@ war Air Force . This review led to the early retirement of such figures as Air Marshal Richard Williams and Air Vice Marshals Stanley Goble , Bill Bostock , Frank McNamara , Bill Anderson , Henry Wrigley and Adrian Cole , ostensibly to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers . Hewitt helped draft the letters to each of the retirees , explaining the reasons for the decision and redundancy payments involved . He also had the " thankless task " of rationalising the Air Force List of officers and their seniority , which had become a source of numerous irregularities due to the temporary and acting promotions granted during wartime . This resulted in many officers of senior rank being ' demoted ' as many as three levels , such as group captain to flight lieutenant , in the first post @-@ war List released in June 1947 .
= = = RAAF education and other work = = =
Hewitt was responsible for initiating major improvements in Air Force education that took place between 1945 and 1953 , playing a key role in the establishment of RAAF College and the introduction of an apprenticeship training programme . The purpose of the College was , in Hewitt 's words , to " sow the seeds of service " for future leaders , helping create a special RAAF esprit de corps . He added that it was " almost a truism that the future RAAF can be no better than the Air Force College " . Founded at Point Cook in January 1948 , RAAF College 's inaugural commandant was Air Commodore Val Hancock , who also drafted its first charter . With the support of the Air Member for Engineering and Maintenance , Air Vice Marshal Ellis Wackett , Hewitt developed the Apprenticeship Training Scheme to raise the standard of technical roles in the Air Force , introducing it with a nationwide publicity campaign to attract recruits . Its base was the Ground Training School , which opened at Wagga , New South Wales , in early 1948 to provide education and technical training for youths aged 15 to 17 . It was renamed RAAF Technical College in 1950 and then the RAAF School of Technical Training in 1952 .
Parallel to his initiatives in Air Force education and training , Hewitt introduced a revised aircrew ranking scheme that consisted of skill categories with various levels , such as navigator level 4 or pilot level 1 , rather than the regular military ranks such as sergeant or flight lieutenant . This was abandoned in 1950 due to dissatisfaction caused by the lack of obvious equivalence between these specialist ' ranks ' and the traditional ranking system common to the rest of the RAAF and other defence forces . After completing his term as Air Member for Personnel in 1948 , he was posted to London as the Australian Defence Representative . By now promoted air vice marshal , Hewitt was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1951 New Year Honours . Returning from Britain the same year , he took over as Air Member for Supply and Equipment ( AMSE ) from Air Vice Marshal George Mackinolty , who had died suddenly of cancer . Hewitt served as AMSE until his retirement from the RAAF in April 1956 . In this role , he again cooperated with Air Vice Marshal Wackett — now the Air Member for Technical Services — to introduce the concept of acquiring spare parts based on ' life @-@ of @-@ type ' , whereby the forecast number and type of spares necessary for an aircraft 's projected service life would be ordered when it was first deployed operationally , to reduce support costs and delivery times .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Following his retirement from the Air Force in 1956 , Hewitt joined International Harvester Co . Australia as Manager of Education and Training . He became a trustee of the Services Canteen Trust the same year , serving in this position until 1977 . Having retired from International Harvester in 1966 , Hewitt became an author in later life and wrote two books on his experiences in the military . The first , Adversity in Success , was published in 1980 and gave his account of the air war in the South West Pacific . He followed it in 1984 with The Black One . Hewitt also acted as chairman and managing director of his own publishing house , Langate Publishing . Predeceased by his wife Lorna , he died on 1 November 1985 .
Hewitt is credited with being primarily responsible for the " education revolution " that took place in the RAAF between 1945 and 1953 , his initiatives while Air Member for Personnel being carried on by his successor in the position , Air Vice Marshal Frank Bladin . According to Air Force historians Alan Stephens and Keith Isaacs , the importance of RAAF College and the Apprenticeship Training Scheme in contributing to the professionalism of the post @-@ war service " cannot be over @-@ stated " . Air Vice Marshal Ernie Hey , the Air Member for Technical Services from 1960 through 1972 , declared that the apprenticeship programme was " one of the best things " the RAAF ever established and its graduates — numbering some 5 @,@ 500 from 1952 to 1993 — as " absolutely outstanding " . Joe Hewitt is commemorated by Hewitt Reef in Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , named in his honour by the survey team on HMAS Moresby , with whom he worked as a member of No. 101 Flight in 1926 – 28 . Hewitt also founded an eponymous trophy for small arms proficiency in the Air Force .
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= Club Life : Volume Two Miami =
Club Life : Volume Two Miami is the seventh mix compilation by Dutch disc jockey and music producer Tiësto , released on April 21 , 2012 . The second installment of the Club Life series , the album serves as a homage to the nightlife of Miami , Florida , a city renowned for being a focal point for electronic music . As well as collaborating with producers such as Axwell , Wolfgang Gartner , Afrojack , and Hardwell , Tiësto developed remixes of " Paradise " by Coldplay , Gotye 's " Somebody That I Used to Know " and The Naked and Famous ' " Young Blood " .
Music critics reacted favorably to the album , who cited its bombastic approach and musical composition as highlights . Critics also felt that the album effectively reflected the dance culture in Miami . Club Life : Volume Two Miami performed successfully in several countries including Canada , Russia , Switzerland and the United States , where it peaked at number sixteen on the Billboard 200 .
= = Background and development = =
Club Life : Volume Two Miami is the second installment of the Club Life series , succeeding its predecessor Club Life : Volume One Las Vegas ( 2011 ) . The album serves as a tribute to the nightlife in Miami , Florida , a city internationally renowned for being an epicenter for electronic dance music . Upon arriving in the United States in 2002 , Tiësto was instantly enamored by the city 's vibrant electronic music scene , as the genre had yet to garner mainstream popularity throughout the rest of the country . " Literally the first place I came to in America was Miami , " he recalled , " and since then I 've always been in love with the city . They 've always been very supportive of my music . Like , even in the beginning of 2002 , when the whole of America was not really into dance music , Miami had already embraced my music here and played it in all the stores . " Tiësto , who performs in the area annually , sought inspiration from varying discothèques in the city . He explained , " I wanted to create songs that give fans the opportunity to experience the sound of Miami clubs , whether they ’ ve been there or not . "
Tiësto collaborated with multiple record producers and disc jockeys in the recording process of the album , which include Afrojack , Wolfgang Gartner and Swanky Tunes . Club Life : Volume Two possess remixes of Coldplay 's " Paradise " ( 2011 ) , " Somebody That I Used to Know " ( 2011 ) by Gotye and The Naked and Famous ' " Young Blood " ( 2011 ) — songs that Tiësto professes to be some of his favorites . " With the remixes on this album , I took a handful of songs I love and created remixes filtered through the Club Life sound " , he explained .
= = Composition = =
The album opens with the interlude " Miami " and " Chasing Summers " , which are homages to the summers in the city . The collaborative effort We Own the Night follows as the third track ; the song features vocals from English recording artist Luciana Caporaso , which coincides over electronic basslines . After transitioning from " What Can We Do ( A Deeper Love ) " and " If a Lie Was Love " , the respective seventh and eighth tracks — the remixes of " Paradise " and " Somebody That I Used to Know " — follows suit ; the latter contains an upbeat melody with pounding synthesizers . It continues with " Walls " , the album 's ninth song , which contains an upbeat melody and a house @-@ inspired breakdown . Hardwell 's remix of " Young Blood " constitutes the tenth tune of Club Life : Volume Two Miami , which albeit retains the original song 's banger themes , provides a " euphoric sound with progressively sweet vocals building next to synths before releasing a thumping beat " . The thirteenth track , " Arena " , commences after " Life " , " Long Time " , and the " electric summer sound " of Axwell 's " In My Mind " . " Can 't Stop Me " , a collaborative work between Tiësto and fellow Dutch producer Afrojack , is drenched with thumping percussion and grandiose vocals . " Maximal Crazy " serves as the album 's concluding number .
= = Reception = =
Club Life : Volume Two Miami has been well received by music critics . The album provoked Elektro Daily 's Cynthia Conte to conclude that Tiësto " drops some serious fierce beats that will have you dancing all day and all night " . Analogous sentiments were echoed by Sanam Wadhwani , who concluded : " Overall , Club Life Volume Two : Miami is a perfect symphony of sound for all listeners of music and is a must buy . " iEnlive commended the album 's bombastic approach , and asserted that it accurately embodied Miami 's electronic music scene . " As the time is finally here , the international DJ maestro presents his finest work as the album is a home to stellar productions , including collaborations with Wolfgang Gartner and unique remixes of Afrojack 's latest hit ' Can ’ t Stop Me Now ' as well as Gotye 's ' Somebody I Used To Know ' . It ’ s big , and it ’ s here . " Writing for Brig , a publication from the University of Stirling , Stuart Kenny avouched that the album contained a plethora of potential hits " that will unleash excessive amounts of euphoria when blasted from a live stage " .
Club Life : Volume Two Miami performed successfully in several countries . It debuted at number sixteen on the Billboard 200 , becoming Tiësto 's highest @-@ charting album in the United States . Subsequently , it charted at number three on the Independent Albums Chart and topped the Dance / Electronic Albums Chart . The following week , Club Life : Volume Two Miami descended forty @-@ eight spots to number sixty @-@ four on the Billboard 200 . In Canada , the remix album ascended and peaked at number seven on the Canadian Albums Chart . Club Life : Volume Two Miami attained similar successes in European markets . It garnered its highest position in Switzerland , where it debuted within the top three . The album acquired top @-@ ten positions in Austria , Russia , and the United Kingdom , while also obtaining top @-@ 100 entries in Spain and Denmark .
= = Track listing = =
In the iTunes Bonus Edition , " Miami " is a part of " Chasing Summers . "
The digital download of " Make Some Noise " has its own cover art but the song is not identified as a single .
= = Charts = =
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= Hwa Chong Institution =
Hwa Chong Institution ( HCI ) ( simplified Chinese : 华侨中学 ; traditional Chinese : 華僑中學 ; pinyin : Huáqiáo Zhōngxué ; Wade – Giles : Hua2ch 'iao2 Chung1hsüeh2 ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Hoâ @-@ kiâu Tiong @-@ o ̍ h ) is an independent school in Singapore for students aged 13 to 18 covering both secondary and pre @-@ university levels . A Ministry of Education @-@ designated FutureSchool , it operates under the Special Assistance Plan ( SAP ) for bilingualism , and offers the Integrated Programme ( IP ) and the School Based Gifted Education Programme ( SBGE ) , after the Secondary School Gifted Education Programme was phased out . The main campus , in Bukit Timah , covers 72 acres ( equivalent to 29 ha or 0 @.@ 3 km2 ) , which is shared among Hwa Chong Institution , Hwa Chong International School , the institution 's boarding school , and the Bukit Timah campus of SIM University .
Previously two separate but affiliated schools , The Chinese High School and Hwa Chong Junior College , HCI was the result of a merger on 1 January 2005 . The change was in line with the Ministry of Education 's introduction of the Integrated Programme , whereby students undertake a six @-@ year " through @-@ train " education in which they bypass the traditional GCE ' O ' levels . In spite of the merger , the secondary school section remains boys @-@ only , while the junior college ( JC ) section is co @-@ educational . Students from Nanyang Girls ' High School ( across the road from HCI ) also continue on in HCI for their JC education . Approximately 4000 students are enrolled in the school ; the student @-@ teacher ratio ranges from 13 : 1 to 35 : 1 , depending on the class . Hwa Chong has been a top feeder school for international students to Oxford University . The school is a member of Strategic Alliance of Global Educators and Strategic Educational Alliance of Southeast Asia .
= = History = =
= = = The Chinese High School ( 1919 – 2004 ) = = =
The Chinese High School , at that time the Nanyang Chinese High School , was founded by Tan Kah Kee in March 1919 at Niven Road . With an enrolment of 78 pupils , it was the first Chinese institution of higher learning at that time in Southeast Asia , catering to Chinese dialect groups amongst the overseas Chinese . Six years later , the school moved to its Bukit Timah campus .
After its founding , the school offered comprehensive secondary level Chinese education . It remained funded and supported by Tan Kah Kee until shortly before World War II . In 1934 , Lee Kong Chian , son @-@ in @-@ law of Tan Kah Kee , became the chairman of the school 's board and remained in his post until 1955 . During his tenure , the school faced the threat of closure several times due to financial difficulties , but managed to survive due to strong financial support from both Tan and Lee . Together they built a legacy , which the current school body commemorates them for .
During the Battle of Singapore , the school 's clock tower , for its height and vantage point , served as a headquarters for the Allied defenders . Following the war , the school resumed its predominant Chinese education . In the 1950s and 1960s , during periods of civil unrest in Singapore , many students , teachers and alumni participated in or led the anti @-@ colonial riots .
After Singapore gained independence in 1965 , the school came under the purview of the Ministry of Education and was accorded the Special Assistance Plan ( SAP ) status in 1979 . Later , in 1988 the school achieved the status of an independent school , under a scheme that the ministry perceived as proven successful and which was extended to other top schools in Singapore . On 19 March 1999 , the school 's clock tower was gazetted as a national monument .
= = = Hwa Chong Junior College ( 1974 – 2004 ) = = =
Hwa Chong Junior College , now HCI 's college section , was established in 1974 at the Bukit Timah campus of The Chinese High School as a separate pre @-@ university education institution , but under the same management board . The college was the government @-@ aided junior college , with its name being an abbreviation of the high school 's Chinese name to mark the relationship between the two schools .
Hwa Chong Junior College moved out of its campus at Bukit Timah Road in the late 1980s following the discovery of structural problems with the building to facilitate rebuilding . Lessons continued but conducted at various locations . The rebuilding of the campus finished in 1992 and lessons restarted at the campus in 1993 . Following The Chinese High School 's accord of independent school status in 1987 , the junior college followed suit in 2004 , becoming the first JC in Singapore to be granted the status of an independent school .
= = = Merger ( 2005 – present ) = = =
Following the introduction of the Integrated Programme into Singapore 's education system in the early 2000s , The Chinese High School merged with Hwa Chong Junior College on 1 January 2005 to form Hwa Chong Institution . In 2008 , HCI was selected by the Ministry of Education to implement the FutureSchools @ Singapore programme , one of five initial schools to do so and amongst the eventual fifteen planned . Also in the same year , the Hwa Chong Diploma was introduced . The diploma is awarded to the best performing 30 % of its graduating cohort , stacking upon the GCE ' A ' Levels certificate .
The school enrols an estimated 4 @,@ 000 students , spread across the six levels , with a student @-@ teacher ratio of 13 : 1 . Hwa Chong Institution has produced 54 President 's Scholars . The college section 's Humanities Programme has a significant percentage of its students going on to study abroad at such universities as Oxford , Cambridge , Harvard University , Yale University , Stanford University , MIT , UC Berkeley , Peking University and Tsinghua University .
= = Campus = =
The main campus of HCI in Bukit Timah covers 72 acres , making it one of the largest in Southeast Asia . The campus land is shared between the Hwa Chong Family of Schools - namely , Hwa Chong Institution itself , Hwa Chong International School and Hwa Chong Institution Boarding School . Also onsite is the Bukit Timah campus of SIM University and its administrative headquarters . Despite the multi @-@ sharing , each entity possesses its own set of facilities , marked by certain perimeters .
The dedicated Science Research Centre , built in 2008 , has ten purpose @-@ built laboratories in which students experience different research disciplines outside of the usual curriculum , including labs for Robotics and Engineering , Biotechnology and Microbiology , and the Pharmaceutical Sciences . The centre provides resources to support the research and innovation programmes , serving as a central facility for student research activities .
The Ong Teng Cheong Student Activities and Leadership Training Centre ( also called the Ong Teng Cheong SALT Centre , or the SALT Centre ) , named in honour of alumnus and former President of Singapore Ong Teng Cheong , aims to develop students holistically , particularly in arts and leadership development . Housed in it are dance studios , music rooms , and a cardiovascular and weight @-@ training room . A moot parliament is also housed in the centre , modelled on the Singapore Parliamentary Chamber , and it is a central venue for events such as student council meetings and Model United Nations conferences .
Apart from the two purpose @-@ built facilities , other facilities in HCI include a table tennis room , street soccer courts , a judo dojo , three @-@ storey library , a gymnasium , a 400 @-@ metre track , a multi @-@ purpose hall , a multi @-@ storey carpark , lecture theatres , general laboratories and classrooms . The 31 @-@ metre tall Clock Tower of the school is a national monument , the only one in a Singapore school .
= = = Beijing Satellite Campus = = =
In line with the school 's plan to set up a Global Academy , HCI established its Beijing Satellite Campus in 2007 , the first of its kind for a Singapore school . An agreement was inked with a top school in China , Beijing 's The Second High School Attached to Beijing Normal University , in which classrooms will be leased . A total of four batches of students make their way to the campus every year , staying for up to two months . Priority is given to scholars of HCI 's Bicultural Studies Programme and Humanities Programme . Students in the campus take lessons together with students from China in partner schools , carry out community involvement activities , and take field trips to cities such as Xi 'an , Tianjin and Shanghai .
HCI has been quoted as saying that it is looking to opening satellite campuses in India and the United States , with the aim of establishing the two in the near future . In July 2010 , it was announced that HCI would be developing a school in the Sino @-@ Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City in Guangzhou , China , akin to that of its first satellite campus , following the inking of a memorandum of understanding ( MOU ) . This would see HCI partnering a top local school for exchange and mutual learning programmes .
= = Academics = =
Incorporated within HCI are the high school ( junior high ) section and college ( senior high ) section , each caring for different cohorts of students separated by age group . Secondary 1 ( age 13 ) students first enter the high school section and study there for four years , before proceeding to the college section where they prepare to take the GCE ' A ' Levels final examinations . The high school section uses the Mean Subject Grade grading system in tests and exams . The school @-@ wide Integrated Programme offered enables students to skip the GCE ' O ' Levels , typically taken by Secondary 4 students in Singapore . The Hwa Chong Diploma was introduced in 2008 and is awarded to the best performing 30 % of its graduating cohort . It is awarded on top of the ' A ' Levels certificate , and is an added qualification to university applications .
HCI also organises academic competitions and conferences , both for its students and external participants . The school organises the Asia Pacific Mathematical Olympiad for Primary Schools ( APMOPS ) and the Singapore Mathematical Olympiad for Primary Schools ( SMOPS ) . At the same time , the International Science Youth Forum ( ISYF ) is hosted at HCI and co @-@ organised by Nanyang Technological University , Institute of Advanced Studies ( IAS ) , bringing students from across Asia @-@ Pacific together to network and dialogue , with Nobel laureates coming down to share their experiences in the scientific field ; a record five Nobel laureates were involved in 2010 .
= = = Consortia and faculties = = =
Students in the high school section are divided into what are called consortia - a different naming convention from the typical house system . The four consortia in the school are Aphelion , iSpark , Ortus and ProEd . The iSpark consortium houses HCI 's School Based Gifted Education Programme ( SBGE ) . The consortia work closely with one another and each has its own student council . In the college section , they are instead called faculties , highlighting the differences in function between consortia and faculties . There are four faculties , namely - Apollo , Ares , Athena and Artemis - all named after Greek deities .
= = = Special programmes = = =
Various special programmes are offered in HCI , such as the Bi @-@ cultural Studies Programme , the Art Elective Programme ( Singapore ) and the Science and Math Talent Programme . These programmes offer a degree of specialisation that is generally not possible in the standard curriculum , enabling students in the school to explore respective fields to a greater degree . Despite having similar names , the special programmes offered in the high school and the college section are different ; however , most are closely associated with each other . An example would be the Humanities Programme ( HP ) , in which the high school HP focuses on the three core humanities subjects - History , Geography and English Literature , while HP in the college section offers a greater variety of subjects such as China Studies and economics , while gearing students for university humanities programmes locally and abroad .
Special programmes offered in the school are as follows :
In 2008 , the Centre for Scholastic Education ( CSE ) was set up to house all special programmes in the high school section except for the AEP and the MSP . They are the Bicultural Studies Programme , Humanities Programme and the Science and Math Talent Programme . From 2013 onwards , all students participating in Special Programmes are housed under CSE , part of the iSpark Consortium . The Integrated Programme @-@ Special Programme ( IPSP ) has been abolished in the same year . CSE also used to house the now @-@ defunct Entrepreneurship Programme . CSE is also used as an umbrella term to describe the specialised academic programmes offered at the upper secondary level .
From 2013 onwards , Special Science and Maths Talent programme ( SSMT ) is introduced to the SMTP curriculum to train talented students in areas such as Physics and Biology . Sexuality and relationship education programmes are also conducted .
= = = Sabbatical Programme = = =
Under HCI 's Integrated Programme , the Sabbatical Programme is offered whereby students from Secondary 1 to 4 go on one week sabbatical courses in each term in the first semester ( Terms 1 and 2 ) . The programme is unique in allowing the majority of the school populace to put aside formal curricular lessons for a week in pursuit of their passions or interests . Sabbaticals offered are of a wide variety , in categories as defined by the school : Arts & Aesthetics , Chinese Studies , Humanities , English & Literature , Leadership , Technology , Science and Math , Camps and Student Exchange ; they are essentially courses for students to opt for , such as beginner guitar and songwriting lessons , professional music production , Model United Nations training camps , football friendlies with other schools , et cetera . Also , the school requires students to use the specifically designed Online Bidding System - the i @-@ ComP - to organise their sabbatical plans . Students who accumulate demerit points as a result of various offences are penalised in their sabbatical bidding or are recommended for corrective work order .
= = = Exchange programmes = = =
HCI offers a host of exchange programmes with schools spread across the Asia @-@ Pacific , including University of Tsukuba in Japan , Philippine Science High School in the Philippines and the Bugil Academy in South Korea . In 2008 , a collaboration between the Loudoun Academy of Science and HCI saw the team winning the Extreme Collaboration Award in the Stanford Global Innovation Tournament , in a unique achievement for both schools .
= = Co @-@ curricular activities = =
HCI offers a wide variety of extra @-@ curricular activities , labelled Co @-@ Curricular Activities ( CCA ) by the Ministry of Education , and this is in part due to the school 's large student population and size .
= = = Leadership = = =
Since 2006 , HCI has hosted an annual international leadership conference , the Hwa Chong Asia @-@ Pacific Young Leaders Summit , a forum where Asian and international student leaders gather to discuss pertinent issues in the region , as well as to share their cultural and personal experiences . It has seen students from schools in Australia , China , India , Japan , Saudi Arabia , Singapore , South Korea , the United Kingdom , the United States and more , providing an international representation to the summit .
Another annual leadership conference which HCI organises is the Student Leaders Convention ( SLC ) . This is the conference organised by student councillors from the High School section , in collaboration with student councillors from Nanyang Girls ' High School , HCI 's sister school . The Student Leaders Convention witnesses the gathering of over 400 student leaders locally and internationally . Student leaders from other countries include those from Malaysia , India , China , Mexico , Australia and many more . Into its 19th year , the SLC hopes to provide a platform for the discussion of issues and problems which affect youth and the nation .
= = = Sports = = =
There are a number of sports CCAs offered in HCI , ranging from soccer to ten @-@ pin bowling , and from wushu to touch rugby . The canoeing , gymnastics , judo , shooting , table tennis and track & field teams garner nationwide achievements almost every year . HCI has won track & field championships in most divisions . The HCI track & field team used to hold and currently holds a few national records , particularly in pole vault . Other sports which have achieved significant results over the years include the basketball , canoeing , volleyball , water polo and wushu teams . For example , in 2010 , the volleyball team , won the championships in both A divisions ( Boys and Girls ) . Nine HCI students were selected to represent Singapore in the Youth Olympics Games 2010 , two of them from the championship @-@ winning basketball team .
= = = Uniformed groups = = =
There are currently four uniformed groups in HCI : National Cadet Corps ( Land ) , National Police Cadet Corps , St. John Ambulance Brigade , and Scouts ( and Ventures & Rovers ) . These CCAs provide a highly structured organisation and a well @-@ defined hierarchy . The HCI National Cadet Corps unit ( HCINCC ) has been awarded Gold for 15 consecutive years , winning the Best Unit Competition ( BUC ) in 2000 . Also , HCINCC is the only Centre of Excellence in Precision Drill department amongst all NCC units in Singapore . The National Police Cadet Corps ( NPCC ) is currently the largest uniformed group in Singapore , and in HCI , in terms of membership . HCINPCC is also one of the only 2 units in Singapore to have achieved 20 gold awards in the annual Unit Overall Proficiency Award ( UOPA ) . They have received The NPCC Golden Cane , in honour of their achievement . The St. John Ambulance Brigade is one of two School Corps awarded Gold in the Corp Achievement Award for 15 consecutive years . The Ambulance Cadet team from Hwa Chong finished as National Champions for the Inter @-@ Zone First Aid and Home Nursing Competition in 2010 , 2011 , 2012 and 2014 . The Ambulance Cadet team then went on to win the biennial Singapore @-@ Malaysia First Aid and Nursing Competition in 2011 and 2013 . The Ambulance Adult team also won 1st place for the Inter @-@ Zone First Aid and Home Nursing Competition 2013 , and finished 2nd runners up in 2014 . The Scouts uniformed group hosts the Lion Dance troupe , which performs at special and commemorative events . All four uniformed groups achieved Gold in the annual national assessment . Apart from regular planned training , other activities include inter @-@ unit competitions in bowling and captain 's ball .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The eleven performing arts groups in HCI are : the Chinese Orchestra , the String Ensemble , the Piano Ensemble , the Chinese Drama Club , the Harmonica Ensemble , the English Drama Club , the Choir , the Music And Dance Society , the Guitar Ensemble , the Band and lastly Chinese Dance . The 2010 Singapore Youth Festival , saw the English Drama Club judged , where it attained a Silver Award . The previous year , 2009 , saw the other performing arts groups being assessed ; a number of awards were won , including two Golds with Honours for the Chinese Orchestra and the High School Band .
Apart from occasional performances held locally in Victoria Theatre and the school 's Drama Centre , many of the performing arts groups travel overseas both for exchange and performances . Amongst them , the High School Band , the Choir and the String Orchestra are notable for their international achievements . In 2010 the College Choir attained significant achievements in an international competitions , the Festival of Songs in Olomouc , Czech Republic. while in 2011 , the choir attained a Gold with Honours in the 2011 Singapore Youth Festival Central Judging of Choirs . The High School Band , which once performed in the Istana , travelled to Hawaii to attend the Pacific Basin Music Festival for the second time in 2010 , attaining a gold award . The Band has also performed at the National Day Parade . The High School String Orchestra , more commonly known by the acronym " HCISO " , has also travelled widely . It won first runners @-@ up at the open category of the 2006 Gothenburg International Music Festival , and went on tour with the Australian Boy 's Choir to Melbourne , Australia , and Johor Baru , Malaysia , to perform at the opening of the 7th JB Arts Festival . Most recently , the string orchestra achieved Gold with Honours at the 2011 Singapore Youth Festival for String Ensembles . It was also one of the six schools , and the only school in Asia , to be invited to participate in the 2012 Los Angeles International Music Festival at the Walt Disney Concert Hall .
= = = Clubs and societies = = =
Clubs and societies are the most numbered in the school , stemming from a diverse range , such as the Socrates Club ( mathematics ) , the Chinese Calligraphy Society , the English Drama Club and the MediaTech Club ( photography / live sound mixing / stage lighting ) . Many of these clubs / societies have performed well in competitions . The English and Chinese drama clubs of the high school section put up an annual performance , where the students of the school are invited to watch .
= = School culture = =
= = = Student councils = = =
The Hwa Chong Institution student council comprises the College Council , High School Council , and the smaller consortium councils , which represent the college section , high school section and the four high school consortia respectively . Currently into its 43rd year ( in 2016 ) , the High School Council is generally regarded to be among the oldest student councils in Singapore . It is tasked with caring for the welfare of students in the school , and acts as a middleman between the school administration and the student body . The council also organises multiple events every year , mostly with teacher involvement limited to mentorship only , including skills workshops , forums , the Hwa Chong Student Leaders Convention ( SLC ) , the two yearly freshman orientations ( one for Secondary One students and one for JC1 students ) and the Hwa Chong @-@ Nanyang Annual Combined Sports Meet . The President and Vice @-@ President of the 43rd High School Council are Dylan Wee ( from class 4O2 ) and Joel Tan ( from class 4H1 ) respectively .
= = = Information technology usage = = =
Having been designated a FutureSchool in 2008 , HCI has rapidly adopted new Information Technology ( IT ) resources . Announcements and notices are posted regularly online in the school 's Electronic Message Board ( EMB ) , as a replacement for traditional school @-@ wide announcements , and students are required to check the online board regularly . HCI recently developed its own wiki platform , called the Hwa Chong Institution Wikispaces , which further supports collaborative learning and interacting for all staff and students of HCI . The school also organises home learning periods every term , typically lasting one to three days , where students study and learn from home through the Internet and their computers without the need to return to school .
= = = Uniform and discipline = = =
In the high school section , students in Secondary 1 to Secondary 3 ( inclusive ) must wear a white short @-@ sleeved shirt with khaki short trousers and white socks , which must cover the ankle . The four metal buttons must be worn on the two front pockets and on both shoulders . The school collar pin should be worn on the left collar . Either white , blue or black shoes with either white or black laces must be worn . Secondary 4 students wear long beige trousers with a beige shirt , similar to the male students in the college section . College girls wear a beige blouse and a beige skirt .
Students earn demerit points for poor behaviour . Accumulated demerit points can affect final grades and eligibility for certain awards , scholarships and overseas trips . The student handbook states that , for serious offences , male students at Hwa Chong Institution may be punished with detention , suspension , caning or expulsion . Only the Principal or Discipline Master may administer corporal punishment , which consists of a maximum of five strokes of the cane . Students found smoking are immediately caned or suspended or both . Caning may also be given for integrity @-@ related offences ( e.g. cheating ) , uncivilized behaviour ( e.g. defiance ) , and criminal offences ( e.g. fighting ) .
= = = Class naming conventions and allocations = = =
Classes in the high school section of HCI have a special naming convention . The class name is made of a digit , a letter then a digit . The first digit is the class ' level ( 1 for Secondary 1 , 2 for Secondary 2 , 3 for Secondary 3 , 4 for Secondary 4 ) . The letter is the first letter of the consortium of the class ' pupils . An exception is made for secondary 3 and 4 students enrolled in the school 's Center for Scholastic Excellence ( CSE - iSpark ) . In this case , they would be both part of the iSpark consortium and their original consortium . The letter would then represent the program he enrolled in : S for Science and Math Talent Programme ( SMTP ) , B for the Bi @-@ Cultural Special Programme ( BSP ) and H for the Humanities Programme ( HP ) . An Aphelion class would have the letter A , iSpark the letter I , Ortus the letter O and ProEd the letter P. The last digit is the class number . Therefore , class 4A1 would be the first Aphelion class in Secondary 4 , 4S1 would be the first Science and Math Talent Programme class .
Classes in the college section of HCI has a different naming convention , in the format of " YYXZZ " , where YY is the year they enter JC 1 , and X is either " S " ( for science stream ) or " A " ( for arts stream ) , and ZZ is the class number . Students are streamed into classes by virtue of their subject combination . The first number of the class number represents the type of subject combination that the class has taken ( 1 for arts , 6 for Physics , and 7 if anyone in the class takes Biology ) . Administratively , the student population are sometimes grouped by the stream and the first number : S6 or S7 . A1 is however not used often to categorize the student population because all the arts stream classes have 1 as the first number of the class number . The last digit starts from 0 and can range up to K ( as of 2015 ) . An example of a class is 14S60 , which means that the students in the class are taking physics as 1 of their 4 H2 subjects and entered JC1 in the year 2014 .
Unlike in the high school section , the naming of the classes are not affiliated with the faculty that the class is in , instead , the faculty that each class is in is decided by the subject combination or type of subject combination ( e.g. Hybrid ) of the students in the class . In other words , the subject combination of a student decides both their class and their faculty . Another factor is the special programme that the students of the class are offered . For example , in 2015 , the classes who are offered the Science and Math Talent Programme ( SMTP ) are allocated to 1 of 3 classes ( 15S7B , 15S7D , 15S7F ) , regardless of their subject combination ( note however that special programmes often only accept a small range of subject combinations ) .
One exception are those who take odd ( or uncommon ) subjects and / or combinations , such as taking H2 Foreign Language . One cannot ascertain which class they will be allocated in purely based on their subject combinations . The students are often allocated to a class that have students that have a similar subject combination , with the exception of 1 or 2 subjects , most often the contrasting subject . For example , 2 students both with the same combination of Biology / Chemistry / Maths / Foreign Language ( BCM @-@ Foreign Language ) might be allocated to 2 different classes entirely .
An exception though is that if a student is offered a special programme , he / she will be allocated a class based on their special programme , and often not their subject combinations , despite the odd combination .
= = Affiliations = =
HCI offers the Integrated Programme that extends to Nanyang Girls High School ( NYGH ) , an all @-@ girls high ( junior @-@ high ) school , under the name Hwa Chong Affiliate Programme . Under the programme , a supermajority of NYGH students graduate to the college ( pre @-@ university ) section of HCI to undergo their pre @-@ university education . All students of HCI 's high school section also move on automatically to the college section and undertake the ' A ' Levels , unless they fail to meet requirements ( students must have an MSG of 3 @.@ 00 and below at the end of Secondary 4 ) or specifically apply to leave .
Under the umbrella Hwa Chong Family of Schools , HCI is affiliated to Hwa Chong International School ( HCIS ) and Hwa Chong Institution Boarding School ( HCIBS ) . All three schools share the same prefix in their names , and are located in the same main campus . However , in spite of the multi @-@ sharing , each school possesses its own set of facilities . However , the students from the different schools may access and use the facilities in other schools .
Hwa Chong International School is a co @-@ educational international school , offering a six @-@ year programme from Grade 7 ( 11 – 13 years old ) to Grade 12 , finishing with the International Baccalaureate . In the interim years , the students will sit for the iGCSE . The fully private independent school saw its final batch of graduating international ' A ' Levels students and the first batch of graduating IB students in 2010 . Hwa Chong Institution Boarding School is the institution 's boarding school , accommodating HCI 's international scholars . It also houses international scholars studying in other local schools such as Singapore Chinese Girls ' School and Bukit Panjang Government High School . Local Singaporean boarders staying in the boarding school are participants of HCI 's Integrated Boarding Programme . The boarding complex was designed by renowned architect Kenzo Tange , consisting of seven six @-@ storey halls providing accommodation for up to 1 @,@ 000 boarders or guests .
= = Notable people = =
HCI and its predecessor schools , TCHS and HCJC , have a wide alumni base extending to various sectors and industries in Singapore and other countries . Its best known alumnus is probably Ong Teng Cheong , the fifth President of Singapore , who graduated from TCHS in 1955 . Other prominent alumni in the civil service include Grace Fu , a Minister in the Prime Minister 's Office , and Ministers of State such as Lee Yi Shyan , Sim Ann and Sam Tan . Ng Yat Chung , the fifth Chief of Defence Force , and Hoo Cher Mou , the current Chief of Air Force , are among the HCI alumni in the Singapore Armed Forces top brass . HCI 's more notable alumni in business and finance include Olivia Lum ( the founder of Hyflux ) , Toh Soon Huat ( the founder of Novena Holdings ) , and Wee Cho Yaw ( the Chairman of United Overseas Bank ) . In the arts and media scenes , there are also notable HCI alumni such as Warren Fernandez , the editor of The Straits Times , musicians Liang Wern Fook and Eric Moo , and artist Tan Swie Hian .
= = Gallery = =
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= Calgary Cannons =
The Calgary Cannons were a minor league baseball team located in Calgary , Alberta , Canada for 18 seasons , from 1985 until 2002 . They were a member of the AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) and played at Foothills Stadium . The Cannons displaced the Calgary Expos , who played in the rookie level Pioneer League from 1977 until 1984 . The team was previously known as the Salt Lake City Gulls before being relocated to Calgary . Following the 2002 season , the team moved to Albuquerque , New Mexico and are now known as the Isotopes .
The Cannons played 2 @,@ 538 regular season games in Calgary , compiling a record of 1 @,@ 225 – 1 @,@ 308 . They qualified for the playoffs five times : 1985 , 1987 , 1989 , and 1991 as an affiliate of the Seattle Mariners , and 1998 as an affiliate of the Chicago White Sox . They reached the PCL Championship Series three times , in 1987 , 1991 , and 1998 , though they never won a title .
More than 400 Major League players wore a Cannons jersey , including Alex Rodriguez , Edgar Martínez , Danny Tartabull and Jim Abbott . Of those , 11 remain active in the majors as of 2011 . Two players pitched no hitters with the Cannons : Frank Wills in 1985 , and Erik Hanson in 1988 . In 1985 , Tartabull led all professional baseball players with 43 home runs .
= = History = =
Russ Parker had operated a rookie @-@ level Pioneer League team , the Calgary Expos , since 1977 . In 1983 , the opportunity to move up to AAA presented itself when the Salt Lake City Gulls were put up for sale . In December 1983 , Parker purchased an option to buy the Gulls with the intention of moving the team to Calgary for the 1985 season . The Pacific Coast League approved the sale in May 1984 , and reconstruction of Foothills Stadium began . More than 500 names were submitted in a name the team contest . Five finalists were selected : Stallions , Outlaws , Stetsons , Chinooks and Cannons . The Cannons name was selected by a panel of local media representatives . The name was unique , as at the time , no professional or collegiate team in North America used the name .
= = = AAA arrives in Calgary = = =
The Cannons began play in 1985 as the AAA affiliate of the Seattle Mariners . Their first game was played April 11 , 1985 against the Phoenix Giants . The Cannons won 6 – 2 , led by Danny Tartabull 's home run , the first in Cannons history . Following a 6 – 2 opening road @-@ trip , Calgary 's home opener was scheduled for April 19 . It was snowed out , however , as were attempts to play the following two days . On their fourth attempt , the Cannons finally played their first home game on April 22 against the Tucson Toros . Parker threw the ceremonial first pitch out to Calgary 's mayor , Ralph Klein . Led by Mickey Brantley 's four @-@ hit game , the Cannons won 7 – 6 to send the crowd of 4 @,@ 313 who braved the near @-@ freezing temperatures home happy .
The Cannons were a success at the gate , drawing 272 @,@ 322 fans in 63 openings . The season was also a success on the field . The Cannons won the first half pennant in the North Division with a 37 – 32 record , earning a trip to the playoffs . The Cannons entered their North Division playoff series against the Vancouver Canadians without Tartabull , however , as he was recalled by the Mariners before the first game of the series . Tartabull 's loss was significant , as he led all of professional baseball with 43 home runs . Calgary lost their best of five series to Vancouver in three games .
The first no @-@ hitter by a Cannons pitcher was hurled by Frank Wills on May 31 , 1985 against the Tacoma Tigers in a seven @-@ inning game . Three years later , Erik Hanson pitched the second no @-@ hitter in Cannons history on August 21 , 1988 , posting a 5 – 0 victory over the Las Vegas Stars . Hanson walked only one batter in the seven @-@ inning game .
= = = Pennant chases = = =
Calgary again made the playoffs in 1987 , finishing atop the North Division second half standings with a record of 46 – 25 . The Cannons ' overall record of 84 – 57 would ultimately stand as the best record the team compiled in Calgary . The Cannons lost the first two games of the Northern Division Championship Series against the Tacoma Tigers on the road before returning to Calgary to sweep the final three games of the series . Parker described the game five victory as " the biggest moment in Calgary baseball history . " The Cannons faced the Albuquerque Dukes in the Pacific Coast League Championship Series . After splitting the first two games in Calgary , the Cannons dropped the next two in Albuquerque as the Dukes won their fourth PCL championship in ten years .
The Cannons made their third playoff appearance in five years in 1989 by winning the second @-@ half pennant with a record of 42 – 29 . The record represented a worst @-@ to @-@ first result for Calgary , as the club finished last in the PCL North in the first half with a 28 – 43 record . The Guns faced the Vancouver Canadians in a rematch of the 1985 North Division Final . As in 1985 , Vancouver swept Calgary in three games .
1991 marked the fourth playoff appearance for the Cannons , who posted a 45 – 24 record in the second half . The Cannons swept the Portland Beavers in three games to claim the second Northern Division pennant in franchise history . They also won their first playoff road @-@ games in team history in setting up a championship clash with the Tucson Toros . Calgary won the first two games of the best @-@ of @-@ five series at home over Tucson , giving them three chances to win the title . The Cannons , however , dropped the final three games in Tucson , losing the title in the process . In the fifth game , the Cannons were forced to start Dennis Powell on two days rest after the Mariners unexpectedly recalled intended starter Dave Fleming prior to the game . The move left Russ Parker " upset " and " dumbfounded " . The relationship between the Mariners and Cannons was never the same .
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1993 , Calgary 's Foothills Stadium was identified by the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues as one of several minor league facilities requiring renovations to meet new standards . The Cannons were given a deadline of April 1 , 1995 to complete renovations , or the team would be forced to relocate . The Cannons and the City of Calgary engaged in a protracted battle over who would pay for the renovations . Renovations finally began in the fall of 1994 and were completed on time .
The 1994 season saw the brief appearance of Alex Rodriguez in a Cannons uniform . The first @-@ overall draft pick of the Mariners in 1993 , Rodriguez vaulted through the Mariners organization in 1994 , starting with the Appleton Foxes in Class A , then the AA Jacksonville Suns . Rodriguez was then promoted to the Mariners , playing 17 major league games before being optioned to Calgary to complete the season .
Following the 1994 season , the Cannons and Mariners parted ways , as Seattle moved its AAA team to nearby Tacoma . The Cannons signed an affiliation agreement with the Pittsburgh Pirates , which lasted for three seasons . In 1998 , the Cannons became the AAA affiliate of the Chicago White Sox .
The 1998 Cannons qualified for the playoffs for the first time in seven seasons , doing so in dramatic fashion . Calgary clinched its third North Division pennant on September 3 , 1998 , defeating the Canadians 4 – 3 when Kevin Roberson hit a pinch @-@ hit , two @-@ run home run in the bottom of the ninth inning . The victory was the Cannons ' 11th straight , and occurred before a crowd of 8 @,@ 976 , both franchise records . In the playoffs , the Cannons defeated the Fresno Grizzlies in five games to win the Pacific Conference championship , earning their third trip to the PCL Championship Series in team history . After dropping the first game of the final at home to the New Orleans Zephyrs , Calgary rebounded with 12 – 8 and 5 – 2 wins , the latter in New Orleans , to move within one game of winning the title . However , as in 1991 , the Cannons were unable to clinch the title , falling 8 – 1 and 4 – 3 in New Orleans as the Zephyrs won the title .
After the season , the Cannons switched major league teams for a final time , and became the Florida Marlins affiliate for the final four years in Calgary .
= = = Relocation = = =
Citing six years of financial losses , Parker signed a letter of intent to sell the Cannons to a group from Albuquerque , New Mexico , in January 2001 . It was not the first time Parker had considered such a sale . He backed out of a similar sale to a Portland , Oregon – based group at the last minute in 1999 . The sale , which would see the team play in Calgary in 2001 , then relocate to Albuquerque for the 2002 season , was contingent on voters in New Mexico supporting a referendum to pay for a new ballpark .
Parker argued that the Cannons no longer made economic sense in Calgary . Foothills Stadium was badly outdated . The Canadian dollar was at record lows against the American dollar , placing the team at a disadvantage in a league that was American @-@ based . Poor weather was also blamed , especially early in the season , leading to lower attendance . The new ballpark in Albuquerque was approved ; however , construction delays pushed the relocation of the team back a year . The Cannons 18th , and final , season took place in 2002 .
The Cannons ' final game was played on September 2 , 2002 , against the Edmonton Trappers . It ended in a wild 14 – 13 victory over Calgary 's provincial rival before a sellout crowd of 8 @,@ 512 . The Cannons scored four runs in the bottom of the ninth inning to win the game , with the winning run scored on a strikeout / wild pitch . The team left the field to the song Happy Trails while the cannon in right field that had been fired every time a Calgary player hit a home run fired off a 21 @-@ gun salute .
The team began play as the Albuquerque Isotopes in 2003 , named after a Simpsons episode where Homer Simpson attempted to prevent the Springfield Isotopes from relocating to Albuquerque . In Calgary , two new teams began play at Foothills Stadium . The Calgary Outlaws of the independent Canadian Baseball League lasted only a half @-@ season before the entire league folded . The Calgary Dawgs of the Western Major Baseball League operated as a college summer league team . The Calgary Vipers of the independent North American League was the most recent team to represent Calgary , but folded at the end of the 2011 season .
= = All @-@ time record = =
Note : the PCL abandoned the split @-@ season format beginning in the 1998 season as the league expanded to 16 teams following the dissolution of the American Association .
= = Cannons in the Major Leagues = =
Over 400 Cannons players also played in the Major Leagues . Of them , the following players played at least parts of ten or more seasons at the Major League level or remain active as of the 2011 season . Eleven former Cannons remain active in the Majors .
Players listed in bold have been active on a Major League roster in 2011 .
= = Foothills Stadium = =
The status of Foothills Stadium , formerly known as Burns Stadium , was a consistent story throughout the Cannons history . The ballpark 's owner , the City of Calgary , risked scuttling the move of the Gulls to Calgary by choosing to reassess the feasibility of AAA baseball in Calgary in 1984 . Council ultimately voted to support Parker , agreeing to a seven @-@ year lease and $ 1 @.@ 5 million to renovate Foothills , one of the PCL 's conditions on approving the relocation . In the Cannons early years , Foothills was regarded as a park with good atmosphere . Mel Kowalchuck of the Edmonton Trappers described the park in 1988 : " They provide a good atmosphere at the park . Seating 's good , and so is the field . The lighting , concessions , parking ... everything 's good . "
Renovations to Foothills again became a major issue in 1993 , when the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues demanded that the Cannons upgrade Foothills to AAA standards . The Cannons and the city fought a protracted battle to see who would pay the majority of the $ 2 million renovation costs . The debate also included the Alberta government . Parker argued that if council did not choose to pay the majority of the renovation costs that he would sell or relocate the team . Groups representing Portland , Oregon , Fresno and Sacramento , California all expressed interest in the team . Unable to reach an agreement with the city , the Cannons then turned to the federal government in March 1994 , making a pitch for a federal infrastructure grant to help pay for renovations . Renovations to Foothills Stadium finally began following the 1994 season .
As other teams built new ballparks throughout the 1990s , Foothills ' lack of luxury boxes , small clubhouses and open concourse became a growing concern for Parker . By 1998 , he was arguing the need for a new stadium , or a major renovation of Foothills at a cost of $ 20 million . Despite numerous efforts to convince city council to help renovate Foothills , Parker was unable to secure support for the project . When the Cannons were sold and relocated in 2002 , Foothills Stadium was regarded as one of the major reasons why the team moved south to Albuquerque .
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= HMS Courageous ( 50 ) =
HMS Courageous was the lead ship of the Courageous @-@ class cruisers built for the Royal Navy during the First World War . Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by First Sea Lord John Fisher , the ship was very lightly armoured and armed with only a few heavy guns . Courageous was completed in late 1916 and spent the war patrolling the North Sea . She participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 and was present when the German High Seas Fleet surrendered a year later .
Courageous was decommissioned after the war , then rebuilt as an aircraft carrier during the mid @-@ 1920s . She could carry 48 aircraft compared to the 36 carried by her half @-@ sister Furious on approximately the same displacement . After recommissioning she spent most of her career operating off Great Britain and Ireland . She briefly became a training carrier , but reverted to her normal role a few months before the start of the Second World War in September 1939 . Courageous was torpedoed and sunk in the opening weeks of the war , going down with more than 500 of her crew .
= = Origin and construction = =
During the First World War , Admiral Fisher was prevented from ordering an improved version of the preceding Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by a wartime restriction that banned construction of ships larger than light cruisers in 1915 . To obtain ships suitable for the doctrinal roles of battlecruisers , such as scouting for fleets and hunting enemy raiders , he settled on ships with the minimal armour of a light cruiser and the armament of a battlecruiser . He justified their existence by claiming he needed fast , shallow @-@ draught ships for his Baltic Project , a plan to invade Germany via its Baltic coast .
Courageous had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 81 feet ( 24 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 25 feet 10 inches ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . She displaced 19 @,@ 180 long tons ( 19 @,@ 490 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 560 long tons ( 22 @,@ 922 t ) at deep load . Courageous and her sisters were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . To save design time , the installation used in the light cruiser Champion , the first cruiser in the navy with geared turbines , was simply replicated for four turbine sets . The Parsons turbines were powered by eighteen Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers . They were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 MW ) at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . The ship reached an estimated 30 @.@ 8 knots ( 57 @.@ 0 km / h ; 35 @.@ 4 mph ) during sea trials .
The ship 's normal design load was 750 long tons ( 762 t ) of fuel oil , but she could carry a maximum of 3 @,@ 160 long tons ( 3 @,@ 211 t ) . At full capacity , she could steam for an estimated 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 110 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Courageous carried four BL 15 @-@ inch Mk I guns in two hydraulically powered twin gun turrets , designated ' A ' and ' Y ' from front to rear . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mk IX guns mounted in six manually powered mounts . The mount placed three breeches too close together , causing the 23 loaders to get in one another 's way , and preventing the intended high rate of fire . A pair of QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns were fitted abreast the mainmast on Courageous . She mounted two submerged tubes for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes and carried 10 torpedoes for them .
= = First World War = =
Courageous was laid down on 26 March 1915 , launched on 5 February 1916 and completed on 4 November . During her sea trials later that month , she sustained structural damage while running at full speed in a rough head sea ; the exact cause is uncertain . The forecastle deck was deeply buckled in three places between the breakwater and the forward turret . The side plating was visibly buckled between the forecastle and upper decks . Water had entered the submerged torpedo room and rivets had sheared in the angle irons securing the deck armour in place . The ship was stiffened with 130 long tons ( 130 t ) of steel in response . As of 23 November 1916 , she cost £ 2 @,@ 038 @,@ 225 to build .
Upon commissioning , Courageous was assigned to the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet . She became flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron near the end of 1916 when that unit was re @-@ formed after most of its ships had been sunk at the Battle of Jutland in May . The ship was temporarily fitted as a minelayer in April 1917 by the addition of mine rails on her quarterdeck that could hold over 200 mines , but never laid any mines . In mid @-@ 1917 , she received half a dozen torpedo mounts , each with two tubes : one mount on each side of the mainmast on the upper deck and two mounts on each side of the rear turret on the quarterdeck . On 30 July 1917 , Rear @-@ Admiral Trevylyan Napier assumed command of the 1st Cruiser Squadron and was appointed Acting Vice @-@ Admiral Commanding the Light Cruiser Force until he was relieved on 26 October 1918 .
On 16 October 1917 , the Admiralty received word of German ship movements , possibly indicating a raid . Admiral Beatty , the commander of the Grand Fleet , ordered most of his light cruisers and destroyers to sea in an effort to locate the enemy ships . Courageous and Glorious were not initially included amongst them , but were sent to reinforce the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron patrolling the central part of the North Sea later that day . Two German Brummer @-@ class light cruisers managed to slip through the gaps between the British patrols and destroy a convoy bound for Norway during the morning of 17 October , but no word was received of the engagement until that afternoon . The 1st Cruiser Squadron was ordered to intercept , but was unsuccessful as the German cruisers were faster than expected .
= = = Second Battle of Heligoland Bight = = =
Throughout 1917 the Admiralty was becoming more concerned about German efforts to sweep paths through the British @-@ laid minefields intended to restrict the actions of the High Seas Fleet and German submarines . A preliminary raid on German minesweeping forces on 31 October by light forces destroyed ten small ships . Based on intelligence reports , the Admiralty allocated the 1st Cruiser Squadron on 17 November 1917 , with cover provided by the reinforced 1st Battlecruiser Squadron and distant cover by the battleships of the 1st Battle Squadron , to destroy the minesweepers and their light cruiser escorts .
The German ships — four light cruisers of II Scouting Force , eight destroyers , three divisions of minesweepers , eight Sperrbrechers ( cork @-@ filled trawlers ) and two other trawlers to mark the swept route — were spotted at 7 : 30 am . Courageous and the light cruiser Cardiff opened fire with their forward guns seven minutes later . The Germans responded by laying an effective smoke screen . The British continued in pursuit , but lost track of most of the smaller ships in the smoke and concentrated fire on the light cruisers . Courageous fired 92 fifteen @-@ inch shells and 180 four @-@ inch shells during the battle , and the only damage she received was from her own muzzle blast . One fifteen @-@ inch shell hit a gun shield of the light cruiser SMS Pillau but did not affect her speed . At 9 : 30 the 1st Cruiser Squadron broke off their pursuit so that they would not enter a minefield marked on their maps ; the ships turned south , playing no further role in the battle .
After the battle , the mine fittings on Courageous were removed , and she spent the rest of the war intermittently patrolling the North Sea . In 1918 , short take @-@ off platforms were fitted for a Sopwith Camel and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter on both 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) turrets . The ship was present at the surrender of the German High Seas fleet on 21 November 1918 . Courageous was placed in reserve at Rosyth on 1 February 1919 and she again became Napier 's flagship as he was appointed Vice @-@ Admiral Commanding the Rosyth Reserve until 1 May , The ship was assigned to the Gunnery School at Portsmouth the following year as a turret drill ship . She became flagship of the Rear @-@ Admiral Commanding the Reserve at Portsmouth in March 1920 . Captain Sidney Meyrick became her Flag Captain in 1920 . He was relieved by Capt John Casement in August 1921 .
= = Between the wars = =
= = = Conversion = = =
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 severely limited capital ship tonnage , and the Royal Navy was forced to scrap many of its older battleships and battlecruisers . The treaty allowed the conversion of existing ships totalling up to 66 @,@ 000 long tons ( 67 @,@ 059 t ) into aircraft carriers , and the Courageous class 's combination of a large hull and high speed made these ships ideal candidates . The conversion of Courageous began on 29 June 1924 at Devonport . Her fifteen @-@ inch turrets were placed into storage and reused during the Second World War for HMS Vanguard , the Royal Navy 's last battleship . The conversion into an aircraft carrier cost £ 2 @,@ 025 @,@ 800 .
The ship 's new design improved on her half @-@ sister HMS Furious , which lacked an island and a conventional funnel . All superstructure , guns , torpedo tubes , and fittings down to the main deck were removed . A two @-@ storey hangar was built on top of the remaining hull ; each level was 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high and 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long . The upper hangar level opened onto a short flying @-@ off deck , below and forward of the main flight deck . The flying @-@ off deck improved launch and recovery cycle flexibility until new fighters requiring longer takeoff rolls made the lower deck obsolete in the 1930s . Two 46 @-@ by @-@ 48 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 0 m × 14 @.@ 6 m ) lifts were installed fore and aft in the flight deck . An island with the bridge , flying control station and funnel was added on the starboard side , since islands had been found not to contribute significantly to turbulence . By 1939 the ship could carry 34 @,@ 500 imperial gallons ( 157 @,@ 000 l ; 41 @,@ 400 US gal ) of petrol for her aircraft .
Courageous received a dual @-@ purpose armament of sixteen QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns in single HA Mark XII mounts . Each side of the lower flight deck had a mount , and two were on the quarterdeck . The remaining twelve mounts were distributed along the sides of the ship . During refits in the mid @-@ 1930s , Courageous received three quadruple Mk VII mounts for 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ pom " anti @-@ aircraft guns , two of which were transferred from the battleship Royal Sovereign . Each side of the flying @-@ off deck had a mount , forward of the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , and one was behind the island on the flight deck . She also received four water @-@ cooled .50 @-@ calibre Mk III anti @-@ aircraft machine guns in a single quadruple mounting . This was placed in a sponson on the port side aft .
The reconstruction was completed on 21 February 1928 , and the ship spent the next several months on trials and training before she was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet to be based at Malta , in which she served from May 1928 to June 1930 . In August 1929 , the 1929 Palestine riots broke out , and Courageous was ordered to respond . When she arrived off Palestine , her air wing was disembarked to carry out operations to help to suppress the disorder . The ship was relieved from the Mediterranean by Glorious and refitted from June to August 1930 . She was assigned to the Atlantic and Home Fleets from 12 August 1930 to December 1938 , aside from a temporary attachment to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1936 . In the early 1930s , traverse arresting gear was installed and she received two hydraulic aircraft catapults on the upper flight deck before March 1934 . Courageous was refitted again between October 1935 and June 1936 with her pom @-@ pom mounts . She was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for King George VI . The ship became a training carrier in December 1938 when Ark Royal joined the Home Fleet . She was relieved of that duty by her half @-@ sister Furious in May 1939 . Courageous participated in the Portland Fleet Review on 9 August 1939 .
= = = Air group = = =
Courageous could carry up to 48 aircraft ; following completion of her trials and embarking stores and personnel , she sailed for Spithead on 14 May 1928 . The following day , a Blackburn Dart of 463 Flight made the ship 's first deck landing . The Dart was followed by the Fairey Flycatchers of 404 and 407 Flights , the Fairey IIIFs of 445 and 446 Flights and the Darts of 463 and 464 Flight . The ship sailed for Malta on 2 June to join the Mediterranean Fleet .
From 1933 to the end of 1938 Courageous carried No. 800 Squadron , which flew a mixture of nine Hawker Nimrod and three Hawker Osprey fighters . 810 , 820 and 821 Squadrons were embarked for reconnaissance and anti @-@ ship attack missions during the same period . They flew the Blackburn Baffin , the Blackburn Shark , the Blackburn Ripon and the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers as well as Fairey Seal reconnaissance aircraft . As a deck landing training carrier , in early 1939 Courageous embarked the Blackburn Skua and Gloster Sea Gladiator fighters of 801 Squadron and the Swordfish torpedo bombers of 811 Squadron , although both of these squadrons were disembarked when the ship was relieved of her training duties in May .
= = Second World War and sinking = =
Courageous served with the Home Fleet at the start of World War II with 811 and 822 Squadrons aboard , each squadron equipped with a dozen Fairey Swordfish . In the early days of the war , hunter @-@ killer groups were formed around the fleet 's aircraft carriers to find and destroy U @-@ boats . On 31 August 1939 she went to her war station at Portland and embarked the two squadrons of Swordfish . Courageous departed Plymouth on the evening of 3 September 1939 for an anti @-@ submarine patrol in the Western Approaches , escorted by four destroyers . On the evening of 17 September 1939 , she was on one such patrol off the coast of Ireland . Two of her four escorting destroyers had been sent to help a merchant ship under attack and all her aircraft had returned from patrols . During this time , Courageous was stalked for over two hours by U @-@ 29 , commanded by Captain @-@ Lieutenant Otto Schuhart . The carrier then turned into the wind to launch her aircraft . This put the ship right across the bow of the submarine , which fired three torpedoes . Two of the torpedoes struck the ship on her port side before any aircraft took off , knocking out all electrical power , and she capsized and sank in 20 minutes with the loss of 519 of her crew , including her captain . The survivors were rescued by the Dutch ocean liner Veendam and the British freighter Collingworth . The two escorting destroyers counterattacked U @-@ 29 for four hours , but the submarine escaped .
An earlier unsuccessful attack on Ark Royal by U @-@ 39 on 14 September , followed by the sinking of Courageous three days later , prompted the Royal Navy to withdraw its carriers from anti @-@ submarine patrols . Courageous was the first British warship to be sunk by German forces . ( The submarine Oxley had been sunk a week earlier by the British submarine Triton . ) The commander of the German submarine force , Commodore Karl Dönitz , regarded the sinking of Courageous as " a wonderful success " and it led to widespread jubilation in the Kriegsmarine ( German navy ) . Grand Admiral Erich Raeder , commander of the Kriegsmarine , directed that Schuhart be awarded the Iron Cross First Class and that all other members of the crew receive the Iron Cross Second Class .
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= New York State Route 264 =
New York State Route 264 ( NY 264 ) is a north – south state highway located within Oswego County , New York , in the United States . It runs for 8 @.@ 65 miles ( 13 @.@ 92 km ) from an intersection with County Route 57 ( CR 57 , formerly NY 57 ) in the village of Phoenix to a junction with NY 3 in the town of Palermo . The southernmost portion of NY 264 serves as a connector between Phoenix and NY 481 , which bypasses the village to the northeast . When NY 264 was assigned in the early 1930s , it originally served the hamlet of Pennellville , located midway between Phoenix and Palermo . The route was altered to bypass the community later in the decade .
= = Route description = =
NY 264 begins at an intersection with CR 57 ( Main Street ; formerly NY 57 ) in the village of Phoenix , located in the town of Schroeppel . The route proceeds north through the village as a two @-@ lane road named Volney Street , passing several blocks of homes before crossing CSX Transportation 's Baldwinsville Subdivision rail line . Past the railroad , NY 264 leaves the Phoenix village limits , taking on a northwesterly alignment as it continues through a lightly populated area of the town of Schroeppel as an unnamed road . NY 481 approaches NY 264 from the southeast , and the freeway loosely parallels the surface road as NY 264 intersects the eastern terminus of CR 59 . Not far to the north , the route enters an interchange with NY 481 ( exit 14 ) and meets the nearby southern terminus of CR 6 .
Past the exit , NY 264 turns northeastward away from the freeway to serve less developed areas of Schroeppel . The highway winds its way past a mixture of cultivated fields and forested areas , passing the south end of CR 54 and crossing over Sixmile Creek on its way to a small cluster of homes near the northern town line . Here , NY 264 connects to Godfrey Road , a local highway leading southeast to CR 54 in the hamlet of Pennellville . The route climbs a hill as it crosses into the town of Palermo and the hamlet of Suttons Corner , located at the junction of NY 264 and NY 49 . From Suttons Corner , the route heads generally north @-@ northeastward across along another sparsely populated stretch to a junction with NY 3 south of the hamlet of Palermo . NY 264 ends here while NY 3 continues north on NY 264 's right @-@ of @-@ way toward Palermo .
= = History = =
The north – south highway between Phoenix and Palermo was acquired by the state of New York in stages over the course of the early 20th century . The first section to become a state highway was a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) portion leading north from the Phoenix village limits in Schroeppel , which became state @-@ maintained on November 20 , 1909 . Its continuation south to Main Street in Phoenix was added to the state highway system on December 12 , 1914 . The remainder of the highway in Schroeppel was taken over by the state on September 13 , 1916 . At the time , the highway veered eastward to serve the hamlet of Pennellville . Lastly , the part in Palermo was accepted into the state highway system on October 14 , 1922 . Although each segment of the Phoenix – Palermo state highway had an unsigned inventory number , the road did not have a posted route number .
Unlike hundreds of through state roads without a signed designation , the Phoenix – Palermo state highway did not receive a number as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was finally designated as NY 264 c . 1932 . The route continued to pass through Pennellville until c . 1938 , when it was moved onto a new highway bypassing the hamlet to the west . The southern half of NY 264 's former routing became an extension of CR 54 , which originally began at NY 264 in the center of Pennellville . North of the hamlet , the old route is now a town @-@ maintained road named Godfrey Road . NY 264 's alignment has not been changed since that time .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Oswego County .
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= Ars Technica =
Ars Technica ( / ˌɑːrz ˈtɛknᵻkə / ; Latin @-@ derived for the " art of technology " ) is a technology news and information website created by Ken Fisher and Jon Stokes in 1998 . It publishes news , reviews , and guides on issues such as computer hardware and software , science , technology policy , and video games . Many of the site 's writers are postgraduates and some work for research institutions . Articles on the website are written in a less @-@ formal tone than those in traditional journals .
Ars Technica was privately owned until May 2008 , when it was sold to Condé Nast Digital , the online division of Condé Nast Publications . Condé Nast purchased the site , along with two others , for $ 25 million and added it to the company 's Wired Digital group , which also includes Wired and , formerly , Reddit . Though officially headquartered in the Condé Nast offices in 1 World Trade Center , the staff works from home and is spread across the US in various locations , including the San Francisco Bay Area , Chicago , Houston , and New York City .
The operations of Ars Technica are funded primarily by online advertising , and it has offered a paid subscription service since 2001 . The website generated controversy in 2010 , when it experimentally prevented readers who used advertisement @-@ blocking software from viewing the site .
= = History = =
Ken Fisher and Jon Stokes created the Ars Technica website and limited liability company in 1998 . Its purpose was to publish computer hardware- and software @-@ related news articles and guides ; in their words , " the best multi @-@ OS , PC hardware , and tech coverage possible while ... having fun , being productive , and being as informative and as accurate as possible " . " Ars technica " is a Latin phrase that translates to " technological art " . The website published news , reviews , guides , and other content of interest to computer enthusiasts . Writers for Ars Technica were geographically distributed across the United States at the time ; Fisher lived in his parents ' house in Boston , Massachusetts , Stokes in Chicago , Illinois , and the other writers in their respective cities .
On May 19 , 2008 , Ars Technica was sold to Condé Nast Digital , the online division of Condé Nast Publications . The sale was part of a purchase by Condé Nast Digital of three unaffiliated websites costing $ 25 million in total : Ars Technica , Webmonkey , and HotWired . Ars Technica was added to the company 's Wired Digital group , which included Wired and Reddit . In an interview with The New York Times , Fisher said other companies offered to buy Ars Technica and the site 's writers agreed to a deal with Condé Nast because they felt it offered them the best chance to turn their " hobby " into a business . Fisher , Stokes , and the eight other writers at the time were employed by Condé Nast , with Fisher as editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Layoffs at Condé Nast in November 2008 affected websites owned by the company " across the board " , including Ars Technica .
On May 5 , 2015 , Ars Technica launched its United Kingdom site to expand its coverage of the U.K. and Europe .
= = Content = =
The content of articles published by Ars Technica has generally remained the same since its creation in 1998 and are categorized by four types : news , guides , reviews , and features . News articles relay current events . Ars Technica also hosts OpenForum , a free Internet forum for the discussion of a variety of topics .
Originally , most news articles published by the website were relayed from other technology @-@ related websites . Ars Technica provided short commentary on the news , generally a few paragraphs , and a link to the original source . After being purchased by Condé Nast , Ars Technica began publishing more original news , investigating topics , and interviewing sources themselves . A significant portion of the news articles published there now are original . Relayed news is still published on the website , ranging from one or two sentences to a few paragraphs .
Ars Technica 's features are long articles that go into great depth on their subject . For example , the site published a guide on CPU architecture in 1998 named " Understanding CPU caching and performance " . An article in 2009 discussed in detail the theory , physics , mathematical proofs , and applications of quantum computers . The website 's 18 @,@ 000 @-@ word review of Apple Inc . ' s iPad described everything from the product 's packaging to the specific type of integrated circuits it uses .
Ars Technica is written in a less @-@ formal tone than that found in a traditional journal . Many of the website 's regular writers have postgraduate degrees , and many work for academic or private research institutions . Website cofounder Jon Stokes published the computer architecture textbook Inside The Machine in 2007 ; John Timmer performed postdoctoral research in developmental neurobiology ; Timothy Lee is a scholar at the Cato Institute , a public @-@ policy institute , which has republished Ars Technica articles by him . Biology journal Disease Models & Mechanisms called Ars Technica a " conduit between researchers and the public " in 2008 .
On September 12 , 2012 , Ars Technica recorded its highest daily traffic ever with its iPhone 5 event coverage . It recorded 15 @.@ 3 million page views , 13 @.@ 2 million of which came from its live blog platform of the event .
= = Revenue = =
The cost of operating Ars Technica has always been funded primarily by online advertising . Originally handled by Federated Media Publishing , selling advertising space on the website is now managed by Condé Nast . In addition to online advertising , Ars Technica has sold subscriptions to the website since 2001 , now named Ars Premier subscriptions . Subscribers are not shown advertisements , and receive benefits including the ability to see exclusive articles , post in certain areas of the Ars Technica forum , and participate in live chat rooms with notable people in the computer industry . To a lesser extent , revenue is also collected from content sponsorship . A series of articles about the future of collaboration was sponsored by IBM , and the site 's Exploring Datacenters section is sponsored by data @-@ management company NetApp . In the past , Ars Technica collected shared revenue from affiliate marketing by advertising deals and discounts from online retailers , and from the sale of Ars Technica @-@ branded merchandise .
= = = Advertisement block = = =
On March 5 , 2010 , Ars Technica experimentally blocked readers who used Adblock Plus — one of several computer programs that stop advertisements from being displayed in a web browser — from viewing the website . Fisher estimated 40 % of the website 's readers had the software installed at the time . The next day , the block was lifted , and the article " Why Ad Blocking is devastating to the sites you love " was published on Ars Technica , persuading readers not to use the software on websites they care about :
... blocking ads can be devastating to the sites you love . I am not making an argument that blocking ads is a form of stealing , or is immoral , or unethical ... It can result in people losing their jobs , it can result in less content on any given site , and it definitely can affect the quality of content . It can also put sites into a real advertising death spin .
The block and article were controversial , generating articles on other websites about them , and the broader issue of advertising ethics . Readers of Ars Technica generally followed Fisher 's persuasion ; the day after his article was published , 25 @,@ 000 readers who used the software had allowed the display of advertisements on Ars Technica in their browser , and 200 readers had subscribed to Ars Premier .
In February 2016 , Fisher noted , " That article lowered the ad @-@ block rate by 12 percent , and what we found was that the majority of people blocking ads on our site were doing it because other sites were irritating them . " In response to an increasing use of ad blockers , Ars Technica intends to identify readers who filter out advertisements and ask them to support the site by several means .
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= Skarnsund Bridge =
Skarnsund Bridge ( Norwegian : Skarnsundet bru or Skarnsundbrua ) is a 1 @,@ 010 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 310 ft ) long concrete cable @-@ stayed bridge that crosses the Skarnsundet sound , in Inderøy , Norway . When finished in 1991 , it replaced the Vangshylla – Kjerringvik Ferry and it gives the communities in Mosvik and Leksvik easier access to the central areas of Innherred . The bridge is the only road crossing of the Trondheimsfjord , and is located on Norwegian County Road 755 .
The bridge has a span of 530 metres ( 1 @,@ 739 ft ) , making it the longest of its type in the world for two years . The two 152 @-@ metre ( 499 ft ) tall pylons are located at Kjerringvik in Mosvik on the west side , and at Vangshylla in Inderøy on the east side . Following the opening , there was a seventeen @-@ year collection of tolls , needed to finance 30 % of the NOK 200 million investment . In 2007 , the bridge was listed as a cultural heritage .
= = Background = =
Prior to its 2012 merger with Inderøy , Mosvik was a separate municipality on the Fosen peninsula and part of Nord @-@ Trøndelag county . The first automotive transport from Mosvik to the more populated area of Innherred commenced in 1958 , when the ferry company Innherredsferja started the Levanger – Hokstad – Vangshylla – Kjerringvik – Venneshamn route . In 1964 , the road between Kjerringvik and Vennesham , both in Mosvik , opened , and a new ferry was purchased , establishing the Vangshylla – Kjerringvik Ferry .
The ferry , and subsequently the bridge , is located at the narrowest section of Skarnsundet , between the villages of Kjerringvik and Vangshylla . In addition to Mosvik , the bridge also caters for the larger municipality Leksvik , further out along the fjord . The bridge is the only one to cross the Trondheimsfjord .
= = History = =
The first meeting of local commercial and political interests to establish a bridge was made in 1972 . By 1983 , it was formalized by the establishment of the company AS Skarnsundsbrua to finance construction . The Parliament of Norway passed the plans in 1986 , and construction started two years later . The main contractor was Aker ; and after the bridge was finished , maintenance was taken over by the Nord @-@ Trøndelag Public Roads Administration . The bridge cost NOK 200 million . The bridge was opened by King Harald V on 19 December 1991 , after he had taken the last ferry across the fjord . A monument , the King 's Stone , bearing the signature of the king , is located at the resting place on the Mosvik side .
Following the opening , it won several awards : Betongtavlen ( 1992 ) ; Beautiful Roads Award ( 1994 ) ; and the international FIP Award ( 1994 ) . In 2008 , the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage listed the bridge as a protected cultural heritage . In 2010 , the bridge came in second in a competition held by Teknisk Ukeblad to declare Norway 's most beautiful road bridge .
= = Specifications = =
The bridge is one of the world 's longest cable @-@ stayed bridges , with a length of 1 @,@ 010 metres ( 3 @,@ 310 ft ) . The span is 530 metres ( 1 @,@ 740 ft ) , while the two towers are 152 metres ( 499 ft ) above sea level . The deck is 2 @.@ 15 metres ( 7 @.@ 1 ft ) deep , and 13 metres ( 43 ft ) wide , with two lanes for automobiles and one for pedestrians and bicycles . It is the longest concrete cable @-@ stayed span . The sailing height is 45 metres ( 148 ft ) . The bridge was , on its completion , the longest cable @-@ stayed bridge in the world by the length of main span , but has since lost the title .
The original construction work also included 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) of new road , including a resting place on the Mosvik side . In the construction of the bridge , 19 @,@ 600 cubic metres ( 25 @,@ 600 cu yd ) concrete was used and the 208 cables , with a total length of 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) , weighed 1 @,@ 030 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 010 long tons ; 1 @,@ 140 short tons ) . The cables have diameters varying between 52 and 85 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 and 3 @.@ 3 in ) and can , if needed , be replaced separately . The bridge 's foundations are bedrock below the seabed under each tower . The bridge was built to withstand winds up to 48 @.@ 5 metres per second ( 159 ft / s ) ( century storms ) and has been designed to withstand earthquakes .
= = Financing = =
Toll collection started the day after the opening , and lasted until 24 May 2007 . Seventy percent of the costs were to be covered by the state , and thirty percent through toll fees . The debt was borrowed by the private company that was given a concession to operate a toll plaza on the Inderøy side . Including interest , NOK 80 million was collected , and the bridge was paid off three years before schedule . The Vanvikan @-@ based company was disestablished following the closure of the plaza . Until only a few years before the closing , it was the only toll plaza in Nord @-@ Trøndelag . There were several price increases during the toll period . The bridge was free for pedestrians and cyclists , but all motor vehicles were charged , although discounts were available for frequent travelers . The plaza was manned , and did not take into use Autopass , like many other plazas .
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= Harold Urey =
Harold Clayton Urey ( April 29 , 1893 – January 5 , 1981 ) was an American physical chemist whose pioneering work on isotopes earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934 for the discovery of deuterium . He played a significant role in the development of the atom bomb , but may be most prominent for his contribution to theories on the development of organic life from non @-@ living matter .
Born in Walkerton , Indiana , Urey studied thermodynamics under Gilbert N. Lewis at the University of California . After he received his PhD in 1923 , he was awarded a fellowship by the American @-@ Scandinavian Foundation to study at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen . He was a research associate at Johns Hopkins University before becoming an associate professor of Chemistry at Columbia University . In 1931 , he began work with the separation of isotopes that resulted in the discovery of deuterium .
During World War II Urey turned his knowledge of isotope separation to the problem of uranium enrichment . He headed the group located at Columbia University that developed isotope separation using gaseous diffusion . The method was successfully developed , becoming the sole method used in the early post @-@ war period . After the war , Urey became professor of chemistry at the Institute for Nuclear Studies , and later Ryerson professor of chemistry at the University of Chicago .
Urey speculated that the early terrestrial atmosphere was probably composed of ammonia , methane , and hydrogen . One of his Chicago graduate students was Stanley L. Miller , who showed in the Miller – Urey experiment that , if such a mixture be exposed to electric sparks and water , it can interact to produce amino acids , commonly considered the building blocks of life . Work with isotopes of oxygen led to pioneering the new field of paleoclimatic research . In 1958 , he accepted a post as a professor at large at the new University of California , San Diego ( UCSD ) , where he helped create the science faculty . He was one of the founding members of UCSD 's school of chemistry , which was created in 1960 . He became increasingly interested in space science , and when Apollo 11 returned moon rock samples from the moon , Urey examined them at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory .
= = Early life = =
Harold Clayton Urey was born on April 29 , 1893 , in Walkerton , Indiana , the son of Samuel Clayton Urey , a school teacher and a minister in the Church of the Brethren , and his wife Cora Rebecca née Reinoehl . He had a younger brother , Clarence , and a younger sister , Martha . The family moved to Glendora , California , but moved back to Indiana to live with Cora 's widowed mother when Samuel became seriously ill with tuberculosis . He died when Urey was six years old .
Urey was educated in an Amish grade school , which he graduated from at the age of 14 . He then attended high school in Kendallville , Indiana . After graduating in 1911 , he obtained a teacher 's certificate from Earlham College , and taught in a small school house in Indiana . He later moved to Montana , where his mother was then living , and he continued to teach there . Urey entered the University of Montana in Missoula in the autumn of 1914 , where he earned a Bachelor of Science ( BS ) degree in zoology in 1917 . After the United States entry into World War I that year , Urey took a wartime job with the Barrett Chemical Company in Philadelphia , making TNT . After the war ended , he returned to the University of Montana as an instructor in Chemistry .
An academic career required a doctorate , so in 1921 Urey enrolled in a PhD program at the University of California , Berkeley , where he studied thermodynamics under Gilbert N. Lewis . His initial attempt at a thesis was on the ionization of cesium vapor . He ran into difficulties , and an Indian physicist published a better paper on the same subject . Urey then wrote his thesis on the ionization states of an ideal gas , which was subsequently published in the Astrophysical Journal . After he received his PhD in 1923 , Urey was awarded a fellowship by the American @-@ Scandinavian Foundation to study at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen , where he met Werner Heisenberg , Hans Kramers , Wolfgang Pauli , Georg von Hevesy , and John Slater . At the conclusion of his stay , he traveled to Germany , where he met Albert Einstein and James Franck .
On returning to the United States , Urey received an offer of a National Research Council fellowship to Harvard University , and also received an offer to be a research associate at Johns Hopkins University . He chose the latter . Before taking up the job , he traveled to Seattle , Washington , to visit his mother . On the way , he stopped by Everett , Washington , where he knew a woman called Kate Daum . Kate introduced Urey to her sister , Frieda . Urey and Frieda soon became engaged . They were married at her father 's house in Lawrence , Kansas , in 1926 . The couple had four children : Gertrude Bessie ( Elisabeth ) , born in 1927 ; Frieda Rebecca , born in 1929 ; Mary Alice , born in 1934 ; and John Clayton Urey , born in 1939 .
At Johns Hopkins , Urey and Arthur Ruark wrote Atoms , Quanta and Molecules ( 1930 ) , one of the first English texts on quantum mechanics and its applications to atomic and molecular systems . In 1929 , Urey became an associate professor of Chemistry at Columbia University , where his colleagues included Rudolph Schoenheimer , David Rittenberg , and T. I. Taylor .
= = Deuterium = =
Around this time , William Giauque and Herrick Johnston at the University of California discovered the stable isotopes of oxygen . Isotopes were not well understood at the time ; James Chadwick would not discover the neutron until 1932 . Two systems were in use for classifying them , based on chemical and physical properties . The latter was determined using the mass spectrograph . Since it was known that the atomic weight of oxygen was almost exactly 16 times as heavy as hydrogen , Raymond Birge , and Donald Menzel hypothesized that hydrogen had more than one isotope as well . Based upon the difference between the results of the two methods , they predicted that only one hydrogen atom in 4 @,@ 500 was of the heavy isotope .
In 1931 , Urey set out to find it . Urey and George Murphy calculated from the Balmer series that the heavy isotope should have lines redshifted by 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 8 ångströms ( 1 @.@ 1 × 10 − 10 to 1 @.@ 8 × 10 − 10 metres ) . Urey had access to a 21 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) grating spectrograph , a sensitive device that had been recently installed at Columbia and was capable of resolving the Balmer series . It had a resolution of 1 Å per millimetre , so on this machine , the difference was about 1 millimetre . However , since only one atom in 4 @,@ 500 was heavy , the line on the spectrograph was very faint . Urey therefore decided to delay publishing their results until he had more conclusive evidence that it was heavy hydrogen .
Urey and Murphy calculated from the Debye model that the heavy isotope would have a slightly higher boiling point than the light one . By carefully warming liquid hydrogen , 5 litres of liquid hydrogen could be distilled to 1 millilitre , which would be enriched in the heavy isotope by 100 to 200 times . To obtain five litres of liquid hydrogen , they traveled to the cryogenics laboratory at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington , D.C. , where they obtained the help of Ferdinand Brickwedde , whom Urey had known at Johns Hopkins .
The first sample that Brickwedde sent was evaporated at 20 K ( − 253 @.@ 2 ° C ; − 423 @.@ 7 ° F ) at a pressure of 1 standard atmosphere ( 100 kPa ) . To their surprise , this showed no evidence of enrichment . Brickwedde then prepared a second sample evaporated at 14 K ( − 259 @.@ 1 ° C ; − 434 @.@ 5 ° F ) at a pressure of 53 mmHg ( 7 @.@ 1 kPa ) . On this sample , the Balmer lines for heavy hydrogen were seven times as intense . The paper announcing the discovery of what we now call deuterium was jointly published by Urey , Murphy , and Brickwedde in 1932 . Urey was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934 " for his discovery of heavy hydrogen " . He declined to attend the ceremony in Stockholm , so that he could be present at the birth of his daughter Mary Alice .
Working with Edward W. Washburn from the Bureau of Standards , Urey subsequently discovered the reason for the anomalous sample . Brickwedde 's hydrogen had been separated from water by electrolysis , resulting in depleted sample . Moreover , Francis William Aston now reported that his calculated value for the atomic weight of hydrogen was wrong , thereby invalidating Birge and Menzel 's original reasoning . The discovery of deuterium stood , however .
Urey and Washburn attempted to use electrolysis to create pure heavy water . Their technique was sound , but they were beaten to it in 1933 by Lewis , who had the resources of the University of California at his disposal . Using the Born – Oppenheimer approximation , Urey and David Rittenberg calculated the properties of gases containing hydrogen and deuterium . They extended this to enriching compounds of carbon , nitrogen , and oxygen . These could be used as tracers in biochemistry , resulting in a whole new way of examining chemical reactions . He founded the Journal of Chemical Physics in 1932 , and was its first editor , serving in that capacity until 1940 .
Urey contributed a science article to The Scientific Monthly on Irving Langmuir , who invented atomic hydrogen welding in 1911 by utilizing 300 to 650 volts of electricity and tungsten filaments , and won the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in surface chemistry .
At Columbia , Urey chaired the University Federation for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom . He supported Atlanticist Clarence Streit 's proposal for a federal union of the world 's major democracies , and the republican cause during the Spanish Civil War . He was an early opponent of German Nazism and assisted refugee scientists , including Enrico Fermi , by helping them find work in the United States , and to adjust to life in a new country .
= = Manhattan Project = =
By the time World War II broke out in Europe in 1939 , Urey was recognized as a world expert on isotope separation . Thus far , separation had involved only the light elements . In 1939 and 1940 , Urey published two papers on the separation of heavier isotopes in which he proposed centrifugal separation . This assumed great importance due to speculation by Niels Bohr that uranium 235 was fissile . Because it was considered " very doubtful whether a chain reaction can be established without separating 235 from the rest of the uranium , " Urey began intensive studies of how uranium enrichment might be achieved . Apart from centrifugal separation , George Kistiakowsky suggested that gaseous diffusion might be a possible method . A third possibility was thermal diffusion . Urey coordinated all isotope separation research efforts , including the effort to produce heavy water , which could be used as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors .
In May 1941 , Urey was appointed to the S @-@ 1 Executive Committee , which oversaw the uranium project as part of the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) . In 1941 , Urey and George B. Pegram led a diplomatic mission to England to establish co @-@ operation on development of the atomic bomb . The British were optimistic about gaseous diffusion , but it was clear that both gaseous and centrifugal methods faced formidable technical obstacles . In May 1943 , as the Manhattan Project gained momentum . Urey became head of the wartime Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratory at Columbia , which was responsible for the heavy water and all the isotope enrichment processes except Ernest Lawrence 's electromagnetic process .
Early reports on the centrifugal method indicated that it was not as efficient as predicted . Urey suggested that a more efficient but technically more complicated countercurrent system be used instead of the previous flow @-@ through method . By November 1941 , technical obstacles seemed formidable enough for the process to be abandoned . Countercurrent centrifuges were developed after the war , and today are the favored method in many countries .
The gaseous diffusion process remained more encouraging , although it too had technical obstacles to overcome . By the end of 1943 , Urey had over 700 people working for him on gaseous diffusion . The process involved hundreds of cascades , in which corrosive uranium hexafluoride diffused through gaseous barriers , becoming progressively more enriched at every stage . A major problem was finding proper seals for the pumps , but by far the greatest difficulty lay in constructing an appropriate diffusion barrier . Construction of the huge K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant was well under way before a suitable barrier became available in quantity in 1944 . As a backup , Urey championed thermal diffusion .
Worn out by the effort , Urey left the project in February 1945 , handing over his responsibilities to R. H. Crist . The K @-@ 25 plant commenced operation in March 1945 , and as the bugs were worked out , the plant operated with remarkable efficiency and economy . For a time , uranium was fed into the S50 liquid thermal diffusion plant , then the K @-@ 25 gaseous , and finally the Y @-@ 12 electromagnetic separation plant ; but soon after the war ended the thermal and electromagnetic separation plants were closed down , and separation was performed by K @-@ 25 alone . Along with its twin , K @-@ 27 , constructed in 1946 , it became the principal isotope separation plant in the early post @-@ war period . For his work on the Manhattan Project , Urey was awarded the Medal for Merit by the Project director , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr .
= = Post @-@ war years = =
After the war , Urey became professor of chemistry at the Institute for Nuclear Studies , and then became Ryerson professor of chemistry at the University of Chicago in 1952 . He did not continue his pre @-@ war research with isotopes . However , applying the knowledge gained with hydrogen to oxygen , he realized that the fractionation between carbonate and water for oxygen @-@ 18 and oxygen @-@ 16 would decrease by a factor of 1 @.@ 04 between 0 and 25 ° C ( 32 and 77 ° F ) . The ratio of the isotopes could then be used to determine average temperatures , assuming that the measurement equipment was sufficiently sensitive . The team included his colleague Ralph Buchsbaum . Examination of a 100 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old belemnite then indicated the summer and winter temperatures that it had lived through over a period of four years . For this pioneering paleoclimatic research , Urey was awarded the Arthur L. Day Medal by the Geological Society of America , and the Goldschmidt Medal of the Geochemical Society .
Urey actively campaigned against the 1946 May @-@ Johnson bill because he feared that it would lead to military control of nuclear energy , but supported and fought for the McMahon bill that replaced it , and ultimately created the Atomic Energy Commission . Urey 's commitment to the ideal of world government dated from before the war , but the possibility of nuclear war made it only more urgent in his mind . He went on lecture tours against war , and became involved in Congressional debates regarding nuclear issues . He argued publicly on behalf of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg , and was even called before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee .
= = Cosmochemistry and the Miller – Urey experiment = =
In later life , Urey helped develop the field of cosmochemistry and is credited with coining the term . His work on oxygen @-@ 18 led him to develop theories about the abundance of the chemical elements on earth , and of their abundance and evolution in the stars . Urey summarized his work in The Planets : Their Origin and Development ( 1952 ) . Urey speculated that the early terrestrial atmosphere was probably composed of ammonia , methane , and hydrogen . One of his Chicago graduate students , Stanley L. Miller , showed in the Miller – Urey experiment that , if such a mixture be exposed to electric sparks and to water , it can interact to produce amino acids , commonly considered the building blocks of life .
Urey spent a year as a visiting professor at Oxford University in England in 1956 and 1957 . In 1958 , he reached the University of Chicago 's retirement age of 65 , but he accepted a post as a professor at large at the new University of California , San Diego ( UCSD ) , and moved to La Jolla , California . He was subsequently made a professor emeritus there from 1970 to 1981 . Urey helped build up the science faculty there . He was one of the founding members of UCSD 's school of chemistry , which was created in 1960 , along with Stanley Miller , Hans Suess , and Jim Arnold .
In the late 1950s and early 1960s , space science became a topical field of research in the wake of the launch of Sputnik I. Urey helped persuade NASA to make unmanned probes to a moon a priority . When Apollo 11 returned moon rock samples from the moon , Urey examined them at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory . The samples supported Urey 's contention that the moon and the Earth shared a common origin . While at UCSD , Urey published 105 scientific papers , 47 of them about lunar topics . When asked why he continued to work so hard , he joked , " Well , you know I ’ m not on tenure anymore . "
= = Death and legacy = =
Urey enjoyed gardening , and raising cattleya , cymbidium and other orchids . He died at La Jolla , California , and is buried in the Fairfield Cemetery in DeKalb County , Indiana .
Apart from his Nobel Prize , he also won the Franklin Medal in 1943 , the J. Lawrence Smith Medal in 1962 , the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1966 , and the Priestley Medal of the American Chemical Society in 1973 . In 1964 he received the National Medal of Science . He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1947 . Named after him are lunar impact crater Urey , asteroid 4716 Urey , and the H. C. Urey Prize , awarded for achievement in planetary sciences by the American Astronomical Society . The Harold C. Urey Middle School in Walkerton , Indiana , is also named for him , as is Urey Hall , the chemistry building at Revelle College , UCSD , in La Jolla . UCSD has also established a Harold C. Urey chair whose first holder is Jim Arnold .
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= Future Science Fiction and Science Fiction Stories =
Future Science Fiction and Science Fiction Stories were two American science fiction magazines that were published under various names between 1939 and 1943 and again from 1950 to 1960 . Both publications were edited by Charles Hornig for the first few issues ; Robert W. Lowndes took over in late 1941 , and remained editor until the end . The initial launch of the magazines came as part of a boom in science fiction pulp magazine publishing at the end of the 1930s . In 1941 the two magazines were combined into one , titled Future Fiction combined with Science Fiction , but in 1943 wartime paper shortages ended the magazine 's run , as Louis Silberkleit , the publisher , decided to focus his resources on his mystery and western magazine titles . In 1950 , with the market improving again , Silberkleit relaunched Future Fiction , still in the pulp format . In the mid @-@ 1950s he also relaunched Science Fiction , this time under the title Science Fiction Stories . Silberkleit kept both magazines on very slim budgets throughout the 1950s . In 1960 both titles ceased publication when their distributor suddenly dropped all of Silberkleit 's titles .
The fiction was generally unremarkable , with few memorable stories being published , particularly in the earlier versions of the magazines . Lowndes spent much effort to set a friendly and engaging tone in both magazines , with letter columns and reader departments that interested fans . He was more successful than Hornig in obtaining good stories , partly because he had good relationships with several well @-@ known and emerging writers . Among the better @-@ known stories he published were " The Liberation of Earth " by William Tenn , and " If I Forget Thee , Oh Earth " by Arthur C. Clarke .
= = Publishing history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was booming . One of Gernsback 's employees , Louis Silberkleit , became a publisher in his own right in 1934 when he founded the Winford Publishing Company . Towards the end of the 1930s Silberkleit decided to launch an sf pulp magazine under his Blue Ribbon Magazines imprint ; the title he chose was Science Fiction . Gernsback recommended Charles Hornig to Silberkleit for the post of editor ; Hornig had previously edited Wonder Stories for Gernsback from 1933 to 1936 . Silberkleit took the recommendation and Hornig was hired in October 1938 . Hornig had no office ; he worked from home , coming in to the office as needed to drop off manuscripts and dummy materials , and pick up typeset materials to proof . He was given broad freedom to select what he wanted to publish ; he reported to Silberkleit 's chief editor , Abner J. Sundell , but Sundell knew little about sf and did not get involved with running the magazine . The first issue was dated March 1939 . The schedule was intended to be bimonthly , but it began to slip immediately , with the second issue dated June 1939 .
In order to spread his costs over more magazines , Silberkleit soon decided to launch two additional titles . When he had worked for Gernsback , Silberkleit had suggested " Future Fiction " as a possible title for the magazine Gernsback was planning to launch . Gernsback eventually chose " Amazing Stories " instead , and Silberkleit now decided to use his original suggestion for one of the new magazines . In November 1939 the first issue of Future Fiction appeared ; it was followed in July 1940 by Science Fiction Quarterly . Hornig was editor for all three magazines . In October 1940 , Hornig received his military draft notice ; he was a pacifist , and decided to move to California and register as a conscientious objector . He continued to edit the magazines from the west coast , but Silberkleit was unhappy with the arrangement . Silberkleit allowed Hornig to retain his post as editor of Science Fiction , and offered the editorship of the other two titles to Sam Moskowitz . Moskowitz declined , saying afterwards " I would never strike at a man 's job " , but Donald Wollheim heard of the offer and prompted Robert W. Lowndes to write to Silberkleit . Lowndes later recalled Wollheim 's idea : " In the letter , I 'd suggest that it might be a good idea to add a science fiction title to the list , offering my services as editor at a slightly lower price than Hornig was being paid , and also find fault with all the other sf titles presently out , but particularly with Hornig 's " . Lowndes relates that Silberkleit took the bait and hired him in November 1940 ; Hornig recalls the separation as being by mutual consent because of his move to California . Lowndes subsequently agreed that this was likely to be the real reason Silberkleit replaced Hornig . The first issues Lowndes was responsible for were the Spring 1941 issue of Science Fiction Quarterly and the April 1941 issue of Future Fiction . He completed the preparations for the last issue of Science Fiction , dated September 1941 , but he used material that Hornig had already selected for the article , with minor exceptions . The changes included the replacement of Fantasy Times , a fan department by James Taurasi , with Futurian Times , a similar department from a rival group of fans , the Futurians , to which Lowndes belonged . Initially Silberkleit kept tighter control on Lowndes ' editorial selections than he had on Hornig 's , vetoing five of the seven stories Lowndes proposed for the April 1941 Future , but by the August 1941 issue , Lowndes later recalled , Silberkleit " was satisfied that I knew what I was doing , and ... didn 't need to oversee any story I had accepted " .
Science Fiction was not selling well , and later that year Silberkleit merged it with Future Fiction , under the title Future Combined with Science Fiction . The last independent issue of Science Fiction was dated September 1941 , and the first merged issue was dated October 1941 . The final two issues of the combined magazine , dated April and June 1943 , were , confusingly , titled Science Fiction Stories ; this was an attempt to improve sales by reminding readers of Science Fiction , but before sales figures could be tallied to determine the impact of the title change , Silberkleit made the decision to cease publication . The June 1943 issue was the last for some years : Silberkleit was forced to cut some of his titles because of wartime paper shortages , and he decided to retain his western and detective magazines instead .
= = = Revival in the 1950s = = =
In 1950 , Silberkleit brought back Future , under the title Future Combined with Science Fiction Stories ; this allowed Silberkleit to keep the rights to both the titles . The first issue was dated May / June 1950 . In January 1952 the title changed to just Future Science Fiction Stories . Payment rates at that time were one to three cents per word . In the summer of 1953 , with Future still in pulp format , Silberkleit issued a single digest @-@ sized magazine with no number and no date , under the title Science Fiction Stories . Another issue with the same format and title followed in the spring of 1954 , also unnumbered . Silberkleit decided that the digest format was partly responsible for the good sales of these experimental issues , so he changed the format of Future from pulp to digest . The first issue in the new format was dated January 1955 , and in response to reader feedback the title was changed to Science Fiction Stories . The volume numbering was continued from the existing Future volume numbering , despite the fact that the title was taken from Science Fiction , the earlier magazine . Complicating matters , Silberkleit decided later in 1955 that the market could support both titles , so he revived Future again . Since Science Fiction Stories was using the volume numbering from the previous pulp @-@ format incarnation of Future , Silberkleit switched to an issue number format , with no volume . The first issue was numbered 28 , counting forward from the May / June 1950 issue as 1 .
Both Science Fiction Stories and Future Fiction were able to maintain a fairly regular schedule through the rest of the 1950s . Science Fiction Stories was bimonthly throughout , except for a brief period from mid @-@ 1958 to early 1959 when it patchily adhered to a monthly schedule . Future Fiction began with three undated issues , then switched to a quarterly schedule in 1956 , and finally to a regular bimonthly schedule from the start of 1958 .
With the September 1955 issue , the title graphic of Science Fiction Stories was modified so that the cover read The Original Science Fiction Stories . This was intended to make it clear that the magazine was a continuation of the 1939 version of Science Fiction , but it led to additional confusion , with some readers believing that this was an entirely new magazine . Lowndes addressed the confusion in the letter column of Science Fiction Stories , saying
I am often asked whether Future SF October 1954 Volume 5 Number 3 should be followed by Volume 5 Number 4 ( Science Fiction Stories January 1955 ) or by Future SF No. 28 . To this I reply that you may have it either way , or in this instance , both ways ! Really , I don 't see why science fictionists , who can absorb alternate time tracks etc. with the utmost aplomb , should be confused .
In 1960 Silberkleit 's distributor stopped carrying his magazines , and both titles ceased publication , with no notice given in their final issues that this was the end . The last issues were the April 1960 Future Science Fiction and the May 1960 Science Fiction Stories . James Taurasi acquired rights to the Science Fiction Stories title from Silberkleit and produced three semi @-@ professional issues in 1961 , 1962 , and 1963 , but the venture was not successful enough for Taurasi to continue .
= = Contents and reception = =
The first issue of Science Fiction showed the continuing influence of Hugo Gernsback in the sf magazine field : in addition to an editor who had worked for him , the magazine featured a guest editorial by Gernsback , and the cover was painted by Frank R. Paul , a stalwart of the Gernsback days — in fact , all 12 of Science Fiction 's covers for the first series were painted by Paul . Both Future Fiction and Science Fiction began life with very limited budgets . Hornig worked with Julius Schwartz , a literary agent who was a friend of his ; this gave him access to stories by the writers Schwartz represented , but Schwartz would not allow his authors ' real names to be used unless they were paid at least one cent per word . Hornig could not afford to pay the one cent rate for everything he bought , so he paid half a cent a word for much of what he acquired through Schwartz , and ran those stories under pseudonyms . Unsurprisingly , given the low rates , the stories sent to Hornig had usually already been rejected by the better @-@ paying markets . The result was mediocre fiction , even from the better @-@ known writers that Hornig was able to attract . The magazines paid on publication , rather than acceptance , and this slower payment also discouraged some authors from submitting material .
A letter from Ray Bradbury , who was a friend of Hornig 's , was published in the second issue of Science Fiction , encouraging Hornig to publish sophisticated stories ; in response , Hornig wrote " I 'm trying to give the magazine an appeal to mature minds " , but sf historian Mike Ashley comments that " this never became evident " . Hornig 's comment was probably intended as a criticism of Raymond Palmer 's editorial approach at Amazing Stories and Fantastic Adventures , but Ashley points out that the authors Hornig relied on , concealed behind pseudonyms , were generally the same authors that were selling to Palmer . The first issue of Future included stories by M.M. Kaplan , J. Harvey Haggard , and Miles J. Breuer , all of whom had been more active some years earlier , and Ashley suggests that Hornig may have obtained some of the many stories that Palmer threw out when he became editor of Amazing Stories in 1938 .
When Future was relaunched in early 1950 , the sf magazine field was not particularly crowded , and Lowndes was able to attract moderately good stories from writers who were either well @-@ known or on their way up in the field . The first issue included stories by James Blish , Lester del Rey and Murray Leinster ; other authors featured in the early issues included Fritz Leiber , Judith Merril , H. Beam Piper , and L. Sprague de Camp . Some of the better @-@ known stories Lowndes published in the early 1950s were " And There Was Light " by del Rey , " If I Forget Thee , Oh Earth " by Arthur C. Clarke , and " Liberation of Earth " by William Tenn , which Damon Knight described as " the funniest story [ Tenn has ] ever written " . He also bought work by some of the women writers active in the 1950s , including several early stories by Carol Emshwiller . Lowndes knew many successful writers in the field , and was able to call on them for stories , but the expanding sf magazine market of the mid @-@ 1950s meant that the best material was spread thinly . To attract readers , Lowndes established a friendly and personal style for the magazine , with letter columns and departments aimed at science fiction fans . Blish , writing as William Atheling , Jr . , commented in 1953 that Lowndes was doing a " surprisingly good job " with Future , despite the low rates and the slow payment to authors .
The trial issues of Science Fiction Stories in 1953 and 1954 were competent but unremarkable , with stories by some popular writers , such as Poul Anderson , Algis Budrys , and Philip K. Dick . Once Science Fiction Stories became established in 1955 , Future was relegated to the junior role , and Science Fiction Stories tended to publish the better stories of the two . During the period when Science Fiction Stories was monthly , it carried serialized novels , including de Camp 's The Tower of Zanid and Ward Moore and Robert Bradford 's Caduceus Wild . It also published " Genius Loci " , described by Ashley as one of Thomas N. Scortia 's best short stories . Some well @-@ received stories did appear in Future towards the end of the decade , including " Vulcan 's Hammer " , an early novella version of Philip K. Dick 's novel of the same name ; Clifford D. Simak 's " Worlds Without End " ; and Judith Merril 's " Homecalling " , reprinted in the 1960s in SF Impulse , whose editor , Kyril Bonfiglioli , commented " I don 't believe I have ever read a more successful attempt to imagine an utterly alien way of thought . " Lowndes did what he could to provide interesting non @-@ fiction departments : a book review column was started in the early 1950s , and the end of the decade saw a series of science articles written by Isaac Asimov , and critical articles on science fiction history , written by Lowndes himself . R.A. Lafferty 's first story appeared in Science Fiction Stories in the January 1960 issue , shortly before the magazine was closed down . The budget for both magazines , never very great , shrank even further towards the end , so that Lowndes had to fill space with reprints and re @-@ use old illustrations to avoid paying for new stories and artwork .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Charles Hornig was the editor of all 12 issues of the first incarnation of Science Fiction , and of the first five issues of Future Fiction . Robert W. Lowndes was the editor of all subsequent issues of both titles . Both Future and Science Fiction began as pulp magazines ; the 1953 experimental issue of Science Fiction Stories saw a change to digest format for that title , and Future followed suit in late 1955 with issue 28 . Both titles were initially priced at 15 cents . Future raised its price to 20 cents for the July 1943 issue , the last of its first run , but dropped to 15 cents again when it was relaunched in 1950 . With the November 1950 issue the price went back to 20 cents , and it rose to 25 cents with the January 1953 issue and 35 cents in June 1954 . When Science Fiction Stories reappeared in 1953 , it was priced at 35 cents , and stayed at that price throughout the remainder of its run .
Science Fiction began in March 1939 at 132 pages . Future Fiction was 112 pages when it was launched in November of that year , and shortly afterwards , March 1940 , Science Fiction dropped to 116 pages . The combined magazine , Future Combined with Science Fiction , retained Future 's page count of 112 ; when Future was relaunched , still as a pulp , in 1950 , the page count had dropped again , to 96 . Both Future and Science Fiction Stories were 128 pages long when they changed to digest format ; Future remained at that length , but Science Fiction Stories switched to 144 pages for nine issues , from January 1956 to May 1957 .
The sequence of title changes for the two magazines is summarized below . For Science Fiction :
Note that although the cover read " The Original Science Fiction Stories " for much of the second run , the title was always " Science Fiction Stories " , though some reference books index the magazine under " O " . For Future :
Louis Silberkleit was the publisher of both magazines throughout their existence , but he changed the imprint he used for them twice . Both were initially published by Blue Ribbon Magazines , Holyoke , Massachusetts . Starting with the March 1940 issue of Future , and the March 1940 issue of Science Fiction , the magazines were published by Double Action Magazines , with offices in Chicago . This changed to Columbia Publications , with offices in Springfield and Holyoke , Massachusetts , with the March 1941 issue of Science Fiction and the April 1941 issue of Future .
A Canadian edition of Science Fiction ran for 6 pulp @-@ sized issues of 64 pages from October 1941 to June 1942 , priced at 25 cents ; it was intended to be monthly but there were no issues in December 1941 , or in April or May 1942 . The publisher was Superior Magazines of Toronto for the first two issues , and Duchess Printing of Toronto for the remaining four . A different editor , William Brown @-@ Forbes , was listed , but the fiction was all reprinted from Silberkleit 's U.S. magazines . The artwork was new , however , with covers by John Hilkert and Edwin Shaw , among others .
Two issues of Science Fiction were reprinted in the UK by Atlas Publications ; these were abridged versions of the October and December 1939 issues . They were 96 pages , in pulp format . There were no British reprints of the first series of Future , but Thorpe & Porter reprinted 14 numbered and undated issues from November 1951 to June 1954 , corresponding roughly to the U.S. issues from March 1951 to March 1954 . They were 96 pages in pulp format , and were priced at 1 / 6 ( 7.5p ) . In 1957 Strato Publications reprinted another 11 issues , again undated , from November 1957 to February 1960 , corresponding to the U.S. issues from Summer 1957 to August 1959 , skipping the February 1958 issue . These were in digest format , and were 128 pages ; they were priced at 2 / - ( 10p ) . Strato Publications also produced a reprint series of Science Fiction ; this ran from October 1957 to May 1960 , for 12 undated issues , in digest format , 128 pages , priced at 2 / - . The first 11 of these reprints were cut versions of the U.S. originals , corresponding to 11 of the U.S. issues between September 1957 and May 1959 — the omitted issues were January , March , and September 1958 . The final issue was the U.S. issue for May 1960 , overprinted with the British price .
There are no anthologies of stories drawn solely from either Science Fiction or Future , but in the 1960s Ivan Howard edited several anthologies for Silberkleit 's publishing imprint , Belmont Books , with contents drawn solely from Silberkleit 's magazines . These included :
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1962 ) . The Weird Ones . New York : Belmont Books . Three stories from Future Fiction .
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1962 ) . Escape to Earth . New York : Belmont Books . Three stories from Future Fiction .
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1963 ) . Rare Science Fiction . New York : Belmont Books . Four stories from Science Fiction .
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1963 ) . Novelets of Science Fiction . New York : Belmont Books . Four stories from Future Fiction
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1963 ) . 6 and the Silent Scream . New York : Belmont Books . Three stories from Science Fiction
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1964 ) . Masters of Science Fiction . New York : Belmont Books . Four stories from Science Fiction .
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1964 ) . Things . New York : Belmont Books . Three stories from Future Fiction .
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1965 ) . Now and Beyond . New York : Belmont Books . Four stories from Science Fiction , and four from Future Fiction .
In addition , Douglas Lindsay edited an anthology titled Blue Moon in 1970 , published by Mayflower Books , which contains six stories from the August 1942 issue of Future , plus one story from the Winter 1942 issue of Science Fiction Quarterly .
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= U.S. Route 10 in Michigan =
US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) is a part of the United States Numbered Highway System that runs from West Fargo , North Dakota , to the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The highway enters Michigan on the SS Badger , which crosses Lake Michigan between Manitowoc , Wisconsin , and Ludington . As the highway crosses the state , it is a two @-@ lane undivided highway between Ludington and Farwell and a freeway from Farwell east to the highway 's terminus in Bay City . US 10 runs concurrently with US 127 in the Clare area along a section of freeway that includes a welcome center in the median . Outside of the Clare and Midland areas , US 10 runs through rural areas of Western and Central Michigan in a section of the Manistee National Forest as well as farm fields .
As part of the original US Highway System , US 10 was first designated in Michigan in 1926 . It replaced three state trunkline highways of the day : M @-@ 20 , M @-@ 24 and M @-@ 10 , running between Ludington on Lake Michigan and downtown Detroit . It also ran concurrently with US 23 between Saginaw and Flint . The highway has been realigned several times during the construction of Interstate 75 in southeast Michigan , even being temporarily designated " TO I @-@ 75 " to connect segments of the I @-@ 75 freeway . The US 10 freeway between Clare and Midland was opened in the early 1960s . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) truncated the highway to Bay City in 1986 , removing it from I @-@ 75 and the Lodge Freeway .
= = Route description = =
Through the Lower Peninsula , US 10 is both an undivided highway and a freeway maintained by MDOT . The entire 140 @-@ mile ( 230 km ) length has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . US 10 is also one of only two highways in the state that utilizes a car ferry , the other being M @-@ 134 in the Upper Peninsula .
= = = Undivided highway = = =
US 10 enters the state after it crosses Lake Michigan from Manitowoc , Wisconsin , to Ludington . Traffic is carried across the lake during the summer months on the SS Badger , a privately owned carferry . Heading eastward from the ferry , the highway runs along Pere Marquette Lake and then northward through a light industrial area along James Street in Ludington . At the intersection with Ludington Avenue in the downtown business area , the trunkline turns to the east . US 10 runs through commercial and residential areas on its course out of town . Near the Mason County Airport , the highway intersects the northern end of Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 , Pere Marquette Highway ) . About a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of that intersection , US 10 meets the interchange that marks the northern end of the US 31 freeway in the state . From here to Scottville , the two highways run concurrently together through a mix of rural fields and forests . On the west side of town , US 31 turns northward along the Scottville Bypass , and US 10 continues through the middle of town on State Street . The road heads eastward roughly parallel to the Pere Marquette River . Near Custer , US 10 crosses into the Manistee National Forest .
The trunkline continues eastward through the forest passing north of the community of Walhalla . At Branch , it crosses out of Mason County and enters Lake County , jogging to the southeast through town . South of Long Lake , the roadway returns to a due easterly course . North of Baldwin , US 10 turns southerly and merges with M @-@ 37 . The two highways run together for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) into town on Pine Street before separating . US 10 follows Washington Street easterly and exits town . The roadway passes near several small lakes near Idlewild and turns southeasterly into Chase . The highway exits the Manistee National Forest , and runs through farm fields as it continues across the county line into Osceola County .
Northwest of Reed City , US 10 meets the US 131 freeway before curving around the north side of town . The highway passes to the south of Nartron Field near the intersection with Bus . US 10 . The highway crosses the White Pine Trail State Park , a rail trail that runs north through the area . US 10 continues east around the north side of town and runs parallel to the Pere Marquette State Trail , an east – west rail trail that follows the Ludington Division of the Pere Marquette Railway . The highway intersects the business loop on the east side of town and exits Reed City . US 10 continues east and northeasterly though rural fields in Osceola County . The highway passes to the north of Evart Municipal Airport and enters the city of Evart . It runs along 7th Street through downtown before and crossing the Muskegon River and exiting the city . The trunkline runs parallel to the rail trail through rural country side to north of the small community of Sears before turning to the southeast . US 10 passes between Big Mud , Big Cranberry and Mystic Lakes as it crosses into Clare County . The highway continues to the east , and near Farwell , it transitions to a full freeway .
= = = Freeway routing = = =
Immediately after the traffic lanes spread apart to form the separate carriageways of the freeway , US 10 has an interchange with M @-@ 115 . This interchange , like most of them along the US 10 freeway has no exit number although the freeway contains mileposts based on the mileage from Ludington . There is another interchange near Lake Thirteen for Old State Avenue that provides access to Farwell . About five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of here , US 10 meets US 127 north of Clare . These two freeways merge and run south toward Clare , using the mileposting and exit numbering of US 127 along the concurrency . Near a curve to the southeast , there is an MDOT Welcome Center located in the median between the two halves of the freeway . Past this facility is an interchange that connects to Bus . US 127 / Bus . US 10 which provides access to downtown Clare . The freeway turns to the south between Lake Shamrock and the Clare Municipal Airport . US 10 separates from US 127 at a partial interchange south of the airport using a left exit southbound to continue on eastbound US 10 . The connections for westbound US 10 to southbound US 127 or northbound US 127 to eastbound US 10 are made using the business routes through downtown .
The interchange that marks the southern end of the US 127 / US 10 concurrency is also the place where US 10 crosses into the northeastern corner of Isabella County . About three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of there , US 10 has its partial interchange with the eastern end of the Clare business loop . The freeway continues southeasterly now parallel to the Pere Marquette Rail @-@ Trail , another former rail line of the Pere Marquette Railway . US 10 bypasses the community of Loomis to the north before crossing into Midland County near Coleman . The landscape through this area is dominated by farms . US 10 bypasses North Bradley connecting with an interchange that marks the southern terminus of M @-@ 18 . Further along , the freeway crosses the southern end of Sanford Lake on a set of bridges ; on the eastern shore there is an interchange with M @-@ 30 ( Meridian Road ) that connects to Sanford .
After crossing the lake , the freeway runs southeasterly roughly parallel to the Tittabawassee River for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) until the interchange with Stark Road . US 10 turns to run due east between Airport Road to the north and Wackerly Street to the south . The freeway passes the Jack Barstow Municipal Airport as it enters Midland . At the interchange with Eastman Avenue , the city 's business loop departs to connect to downtown , and the freeway passes near the Midland Mall and the Midland County Fairgrounds . Two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) further east , US 10 turns to the southeast , bordered by residential subdivisions of the city of Midland to its south and vacant fields to its north . There is a partial interchange that straddles the Midland – Bay county line that provides access to the eastern end of Bus . US 10 / M @-@ 20 , which is also a freeway on this side of town . Traffic exiting the business loop freeway is forced onto US 10 eastbound , and only westbound US 10 traffic and enter the westbound direction of Bus . US 10 / M @-@ 20 ; the other connections are possible by using the adjoining Bay City Road interchange on US 10 and the Waldo Avenue interchange on the business loop .
Past the Bay City Road interchange , US 10 continues due east through Bay County . It intersects the northern end of the M @-@ 47 freeway . Further east , there are a pair of interchanges for Auburn as the freeway runs through a landscape that is a mix of suburban residential subdivisions and farm fields . The freeway is paralleled to the south by segments of Fisher Road in spots ; about a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north is Midland Road . There is one last interchange for Mackinaw Road along the freeway before US 10 ends at the cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 75 / US 23 on the west side of Bay City . This junction is both the eastern terminus of US 10 both in the state of Michigan and nationally .
= = History = =
The first state trunkline highways designated along the original path of US 10 were M @-@ 20 , M @-@ 24 and M @-@ 10 as far back as 1919 . When the US Highway System was announced on November 11 , 1926 , US 10 replaced these designations . The highway started in Ludington and ran east replacing M @-@ 20 to Midland , M @-@ 24 to Saginaw and M @-@ 10 to Detroit . Between Saginaw and Flint , US 10 and US 23 were routed concurrently .
Two changes were made in the routing of US 10 by 1929 . As shown on the maps of the time , US 10 was rerouted to bypass Flint . The former routing through the city was redesigned M @-@ 10 . A second change moved the highway to its present routing west of Baldwin to the Lake – Mason county line . A bypass of downtown Midland was opened in 1934 . The previous routing through town was initially renumbered US 10A . A rerouting project in Osceola County started in 1936 . By the end of the year , a new roadway was opened between Sears and M @-@ 66 . Until the second segment of the project was completed two years later , US 10 was routed concurrently with M @-@ 66 . When the new routing between M @-@ 66 and Lake in Clare County was opened , that concurrency was eliminated and all the previous routings were transferred to local control .
By 1942 , the M @-@ 10 designation in Flint was renumbered Bus . US 10 , eliminating the second M @-@ 10 designation from the maps . The last segments of US 10 that were gravel @-@ surfaced were paved by 1948 . The last section paved was between Chase and Reed City .
A bypass of Saginaw was completed by 1953 . This new roadway was designated as US 23 alone . The highway through downtown Saginaw was numbered US 10 / Bus . US 23 . The Fenton – Clio Expressway was completed in 1957 from Birch Run past Flint . The new expressway was numbered US 23 , leaving the former highway through Flint as just US 10 . A bypass of Reed City opened by 1960 ; the former routing was renumbered Bus . US 10 .
Many changes were made in 1960 to the routing of US 10 . A new freeway opened for I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 between M @-@ 13 northeast of Saginaw and the M @-@ 20 freeway in Bay City . US 10 replaced the M @-@ 20 designation on the freeway between Midland and Bay City . M @-@ 47 replaced US 10 between Midland and Saginaw , and M @-@ 81 replaced US 10 in the city of Saginaw . An addition segment of US 10 between Saginaw and Bridgeport was renumbered BL I @-@ 75 . The US 10A designation previously in use in Midland was changed to Bus . US 10 at this time as well .
Additional freeway was built in 1961 , relocating US 10 / US 23 between Birch Run and M @-@ 13 to the new I @-@ 75 . The freeway between Midland and the US 27 freeway at Clare was completed in the same year . US 10 was signed as " TO I @-@ 75 " to route traffic between the completed freeways at Bay City and Grayling by way of Clare . Changes made in the Pontiac area moved US 10 to the former routing of M @-@ 58 . The former highway through town was redesignated as Bus . US 10 . More I @-@ 75 freeway was completed in 1962 between Flint and Pontiac . US 10 was transferred to the new freeway while the old routing was renumbered M @-@ 54 . The former Bus . US 10 became Bus . M @-@ 54 . These changes made all of US 10 from Clare east to Clarkston freeway .
Until 1970 , US 10 followed Woodward Avenue between Detroit and Pontiac . That year , Woodward Avenue was redesignated M @-@ 1 and US 10 was moved to the Lodge Freeway and Telegraph Road . The TO I @-@ 75 designation was removed in 1973 when the last segments of I @-@ 75 were completed between West Branch and Roscommon . Farwell and Clare were bypassed on their northern side in 1975 by a new freeway section of US 10 / M @-@ 115 . The previous routing was partially numbered Bus . US 10 while the remainder was unsigned .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) truncated the US 10 designation from Detroit to Bay City in 1986 . The US 10 designation was removed from its concurrencies with I @-@ 75 and US 23 . The section along Dixie Highway and Telegraph Road between Pontiac and Southfield was redesignated as an extension of US 24 . The Lodge Freeway was given the M @-@ 10 designation and Bus . US 10 in Pontiac was renumbered as Bus . US 24 . M @-@ 115 was transferred off the US 10 freeway in the Clare area in 1989 back to its previous routing before the 1975 changes . The last change made to the routing of the highway came in 1998 in Ludington . Reconfiguration of the carferry docks and parking lot moved US 10 along James Street instead of William Street . The three blocks of Ludington Avenue affected by the change were given the M @-@ 116 designation . At their Spring Meeting in 2015 , the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials official extended US 10 to include the route of the SS Badger between Ludington and Manitowoc .
= = Exit list = =
= = Business loops = =
There are currently three business loops of US 10 in the state of Michigan , and two that were previously designated . The three currently designated are in Reed City , Clare , and Midland . The business route that existed in Flint has been decommissioned while the one in Pontiac has been renumbered .
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= 2001 India cyclone =
The 2001 India cyclone was the second strongest tropical cyclone , in terms of barometric pressure , to form in the Arabian Sea on record ; only Cyclone Gonu in 2007 was stronger . The storm originated from a tropical disturbance that formed east of Somalia on May 18 . Over the following few days , the system gradually organized into a tropical depression . Tracking eastward , towards the coastline of southwestern India , the storm slowly intensified . Shortly before reaching shore , the system turned north and later west , away from land . After taking this turn , the storm intensified into a very severe cyclonic storm , attaining its peak intensity on May 24 with winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph 3 @-@ minute winds ) and a barometric pressure of 932 mbar ( hPa ) . At the time , this ranked the cyclone as the strongest known storm in the Arabian Sea .
After stalling several hundred kilometres offshore , the storm weakened over cooler waters that it had upwelled . By May 27 , the system weakened to a cyclonic storm and by this time was approaching the northwestern coastline of India , near Gujarat . The following day , the storm made landfall in the Saurashtra region as a deep depression with winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph 3 @-@ minute winds ) . The depression quickly weakened after moving inland and dissipated early on May 29 .
Although a powerful cyclone over water , the storm had relatively little impact over land . In the Valsad district , two coastal communities lost a combined 200 homes due to large swells produced by the storm . However , the losses were more extensive offshore . Between 120 and 900 fishermen were listed as missing after contact was lost with their vessels during the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the 2001 India cyclone can be traced to a tropical disturbance over the Arabian Sea on May 18 . The following day , the system was determined to be relatively stationary near the island of Socotra . Although deep convection was associated with the disturbance , there was no evidence of a low @-@ level circulation . By May 20 , the disturbance slowly moved towards the southeast in response to an upper @-@ level trough over India . The overall structure gradually improved as good outflow developed . A mid @-@ level circulation finally developed late on May 21 , prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Several hours later , they began monitoring the system as a tropical depression with the identifier 01A ; however , operational advisories were not issued until the cyclone was estimated to have attained tropical storm intensity . By the morning of May 22 , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) also took notice of the system .
Situated in a region favoring tropical cyclone development about 650 km ( 400 mi ) southwest of Mumbai , India , the storm rapidly developed . By the afternoon of May 22 , the JTWC estimated that 01A attained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Additionally , a 22 km ( 14 mi ) wide eye developed within the center of circulation during this intensification phase . Throughout most of May 22 , the strengthening slowed considerably as it paralleled the southwestern coast of India . Initially , it was feared that the storm would move inland as a powerful cyclone ; however , a ridge over the northern Arabian Sea caused the storm to turn westward , back over open water . Once further away from land , the cyclone resumed intensification , becoming a rare , Category 3 equivalent storm by the morning of May 24 . Later that morning , 01A attained its peak intensity with winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , according to the JTWC . However , the IMD considered the storm to be slightly stronger , estimating that it attained winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) by three @-@ minute sustained winds along with a barometric pressure of 932 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 52 inHg ) .
At the time of peak intensity , the cyclone displayed a well @-@ defined eye and excellent outflow . Although a powerful storm , it quickly weakened as conditions became hostile for tropical cyclone development . Strong wind shear tore convection away from the cyclone and caused it to become disorganized . Within 48 hours , the system had degraded to a tropical storm and was situated roughly 555 km ( 345 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Mumbai . The weakening trend lessened shortly thereafter but still continued . Operationally , the JTWC issued their final advisory on the cyclone on May 28 as it weakened to a tropical depression over open waters . The once powerful cyclone , now devoid of all convection , tracked towards the northwestern coast of India . During the afternoon of May 29 , the cyclone rapidly regenerated as it made landfall in Gujarat . The JTWC estimated that it crossed the coastline with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Not long after moving overland , the system rapidly weakened and dissipated over India within several hours .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Ahead of the storm , all ports in Gujarat , including Kandla , one of the largest in the country , were closed as a precautionary measure . On May 25 , over 10 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from coastal areas in the threatened region . Throughout India , a total of 118 @,@ 800 people were evacuated and 100 @,@ 000 more were evacuated in Pakistan . The Indian military was placed on standby to undertake search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions immediately after the storms ' passage . Fourteen districts of Gujarat were placed on red alert , the highest level of preparedness . Seven emergency control centers were set up across the country and officials alerted hospitals and fire crews about the approaching storm .
Several relief agencies were already positioned in the region in response to a magnitude 6 @.@ 9 earthquake in January of that year that killed over 20 @,@ 000 people . Additional disaster relief teams were deployed to the region to further prepare residents for the cyclone . Food , water and other necessities were stored and ready to be provided to victims of the storm . Large swells produced by the storm affected a large portion of the western Indian coastline , especially in the city of Bombay . In the Valsad district , two coastal communities lost a combined 200 homes due to large swells produced by the storm . Offshore , between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 fishing vessels had lost contact with the mainland . Later reports indicated that between 120 and 900 fishermen had gone missing as a result of the cyclone .
= = Records = =
Operationally , the cyclone was considered to be a Category 4 equivalent storm by the JTWC , with peak winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) . This would have made the system the first recorded storm of that intensity on record in the Arabian Sea . However , in post @-@ storm analysis , it was discovered that 1 @-@ minute winds did not exceed 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . The next storm to reach this intensity was Cyclone Gonu in 2007 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , which became the first known super cyclonic storm in the region . Upon attaining its peak intensity , the storm attained a barometric pressure of 932 mbar ( hPa ) , the lowest in the region at the time . The cyclone was ranked as the strongest in the Arabian Sea for six years until it was surpassed by Gonu in 2007 , which attained a minimum pressure of 920 mbar ( hPa ) . In 2010 , Cyclone Phet surpassed the 2001 cyclone as the second @-@ strongest storm in the region , attaining winds of 240 km / h ( 145 mph ) , according to the JTWC .
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= History of Atlantic hurricane warnings =
The history of Atlantic tropical cyclone warnings details the progress of tropical cyclone warnings in the north Atlantic Ocean . The first service was set up in the 1870s from Cuba with the work of Father Benito Viñes . After his death , hurricane warning services were assumed by the United States Signal Corp and United States Weather Bureau over the next few decades , first based in Jamaica and Cuba before shifting to Washington , D.C .. The central office in Washington , which would evolve into the National Meteorological Center and the Weather Prediction Center , assumed the responsibilities by the early 20th century . This responsibility passed to regional hurricane offices in 1935 , and the concept of the Atlantic hurricane season was established in order to keep a vigilant lookout for tropical cyclones during certain times of the year . Hurricane advisories issued every six hours by the regional hurricane offices began at this time .
The National Hurricane Center became a tropical cyclone warning center in 1956 , and assumed many of the functions it has today by 1965 . The National Hurricane Research Project , begun in the 1950s , used aircraft to study tropical cyclones and carry out experiments on mature hurricanes through its Stormfury project . Forecasts within the hurricane advisories were issued one day into the future in 1954 before being extended to two days into the future in 1961 , three days into the future in 1964 , and five days into the future in 2001 . From the 1960s through the 1980s , work from the various regional hurricane offices was consolidated into the National Hurricane center . Its name was changed to the Tropical Prediction Center in 1995 , before reassuming its National Hurricane Center name in 2010 . Tropical cyclone forecasting is done nowadays using statistical methods based on tropical cyclone climatology , as well as methods of numerical weather prediction where computers use mathematical equations of motion to determine their movement .
= = Early years = =
The first hurricane warning service was set up in the early 1870s from Cuba with the work of Father Benito Viñes , who served as director of the Meteorological Observatory of the Royal College of Belén . He established a network of observation sites and developed the first method to forecast tropical cyclone movement , with the oldest known forecast made for a hurricane in late August 1873 . He would give track details days in advance , based upon clouds which progress well in advance of hurricanes . His hurricane warning service in Cuba continued until his death on July 23 , 1893 . Within the United States , the public was dissatisfied with the Signal Corp forecasts after the Hurricane of 1875 . The immediate response by the Signal Corp was the creation of the hurricane warning flag , a pair of red flags ten by eight feet each in size , inset with black rectangles . Beginning on October 1 , 1875 , hurricane warning flags were hoisted in areas where hurricane warnings were in effect , and illuminated at night .
The United States Congress passed a bill to authorize the establishment and operations of weather stations across the West Indies and Caribbean Sea on July 7 , 1889 . The ultimate outcome was the advent of the Weather Bureau in 1890 , through the passing of the Organic Act which assigned the new organization to the Department of Agriculture . The September 1896 hurricane led to an expansion of the Weather Bureau hurricane network through the Caribbean Sea . The Spanish – American War led to the United States establishing a hurricane warning office in Kingston , Jamaica in 1898 , before shifting to Havana , Cuba after the war 's end in 1899 . After the 1900 Galveston Hurricane , a hurricane warning office was established at New Orleans , Louisiana to deal with hurricane warnings in the Gulf of Mexico . The Hurricane Warning Service moved to Washington , D. C. in 1902 . The use of radio by shipping , which began in 1905 , added significantly more information for those tracking hurricanes . The first report from a hurricane was received in 1909 , with the total of radio reports rising to 21 @,@ 000 per hurricane season in 1935 . Despite the issuance of hurricane watches and warnings , forecasting the path of tropical cyclones did not occur until 1920 .
A hurricane warning program was established in 1935 and established regional offices in Jacksonville , Florida , Washington , D.C. , San Juan , Puerto Rico , and New Orleans , Louisiana . Hurricane warning offices issued advisories at six hourly intervals for tropical cyclones , issuing warnings for storm and hurricane @-@ force winds . The idea of aircraft reconnaissance of hurricanes was put forth by Captain W. L. Farnsworth of the Galveston Commercial Association in the early 1930s . Supported by the United States Weather Bureau , the " storm patrol bill " passed both the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives on June 15 , 1936 . The Jacksonville hurricane warning office moved to Miami , Florida in 1943 , and a hurricane warning office was opened in Boston , Massachusetts . After World War II , the United States Navy and United States Air Force had separate warning centers for the military . In the case of tropical cyclones , the civilian and military warning agencies maintained close coordination . Tropical cyclone naming began for Atlantic tropical cyclones using the phonetic alphabet by 1947 , switching to female names in 1953 . Starting in 1950 , the Miami Hurricane Warning Office began to prepare the annual hurricane season summary articles . Tropical cyclone track forecasts for one day in the future began in 1954 . After the 1954 Atlantic hurricane season , efforts were made to enhance the hurricane reporting network along the coast by setting up a Cooperative Hurricane Reporting Network ( CHURN ) by supplying anemometers and barometers to members of the public which left no length of United States coastline along the Atlantic or Gulf coasts greater than 25 miles ( 40 km ) uncovered .
= = = Hurricane season concept = = =
The basic concept of a hurricane season began during 1935 , when dedicated wire circuits known as hurricane circuits began to be set up along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts , a process completed by 1955 . It was originally the time frame when the tropics were monitored routinely for tropical cyclone activity , and was originally defined as from June 15 through October 31 . Over the years , the beginning date was shifted back to June 1 , while the end date was shifted to November 15 , before settling at November 30 by 1965 . This was when hurricane reconnaissance planes were sent out to fly across the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico on a routine basis to look for potential tropical cyclones , in the years prior to the continuous weather satellite era . After regular satellite surveillance began , hurricane hunter aircraft flew only into areas which were spotted first by satellite imagery .
= = National Hurricane Research Project = =
The National Hurricane Research Project ( NHRP ) was initiated in 1955 by the United States Weather Bureau in response to the devastating 1954 hurricane season , which significantly impacted the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England . Robert Simpson , a Weather Bureau meteorologist who had participated in Air Force hurricane reconnaissance flights as an observer , was appointed as the first director of NHRP and organized the Research Operations Base at Morrison Air Force Base ( now Palm Beach International Airport ) in West Palm Beach , Florida in 1956 . During the first three years of the Project , scientists used three specially instrumented Air Force Hurricane Hunters aircraft with crews on bailment from the 55th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron , collecting data which delineated the structure and energy budget of hurricanes for the first time .
In 1959 , the Project was moved to Miami and collocated with the Miami hurricane forecast office . The Department of Commerce leased two DC @-@ 6 aircraft and received a B @-@ 57 jet from the Air Force so that NHRP could continue to carry out airborne experiments on hurricanes . The combination of research project , forecast center , and aircraft facility was dubbed the " National Hurricane Center " ( NHC ) . During the 1960s , while NHRP continued to carry out research flights , the Project also began to create computer models of hurricane circulation , formulated a statistical track program ( NHC @-@ 64 ) , wrote a manual on hurricane forecasting , and evaluated the accuracy of track forecasts . Starting with Hurricane Esther ( 1961 ) , NHRP was heavily involved with Project Stormfury , the U. S. Government 's experiment in hurricane modification . Late in 1964 , the Project was renamed the National Hurricane Research Laboratory in recognition of it becoming a permanent institution within the Weather Bureau . This presaged the creation of the Environmental Research Laboratories the next year .
= = National Hurricane Center = =
On July 1 , 1956 , a National Hurricane Information Center had become established in Miami , Florida which became a warehouse for all hurricane @-@ related information from one office . The Miami Hurricane Warning Office ( HWO ) was moved from Lindsey Hopkins Hotel to the Aviation Building 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the northwest on July 1 , 1958 . Forecasts for tropical cyclone movement were extended to two days in advance ( at one day intervals ) in 1961 . The Miami HWO moved to the campus of the University of Miami in 1964 , which is when tropical cyclone forecasts were extended to three days into the future , at one day intervals . The Miami HWO tropical cyclone reports were done regularly and took on their modern format in 1964 . In 1970 , NHC began analyzing tropical cyclone initial positions in real @-@ time and added a 12 ‑ hour forecast . Beginning in 1973 , a portion of the National Meteorological Center ( later renamed the Weather Prediction Center ) gained advisory responsibility for dissipating inland tropical depressions . The World Meteorological Organization assumed control of the Atlantic hurricane naming list in 1977 .
In 1978 , the NHC 's offices moved off campus to the IRE Financial Building . The hurricane warning offices remained active past 1983 . Organizationally , the NHC left the aegis of the National Weather Service State Forecast Office in Miami in 1984 , leaving the Southern Region and becoming its own national center , one of three in existence at that time . In 1988 , NHC added a 36 @-@ hour point to their forecast . During the National Weather Service reorganization in the 1990s , the NHC was renamed the Tropical Prediction Center on October 1 , 1995 , and moved into a building on the campus of Florida International University . The Hurricane Specialists were grouped as a separate NHC unit under the Tropical Prediction Center , separating themselves from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch . By 2001 , tropical cyclone forecasts were extended from three to five days in advance , including forecast points for 96 and 120 hours . On October 1 , 2010 , the Tropical Prediction Center was renamed the NHC , and the group formerly known as the NHC became known as the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) .
= = Tropical cyclone forecasting = =
Tropical cyclone forecasting relies on data provided by numerical weather models . Three main classes of tropical cyclone guidance models exist : Statistical models are based on an analysis of storm behavior using climatology , and correlate a storm 's position and date to produce a forecast that is not based on the physics of the atmosphere at the time . Dynamical models are numerical models that solve the governing equations of fluid flow in the atmosphere ; they are based on the same principles as other limited @-@ area numerical weather prediction models but may include special computational techniques such as refined spatial domains that move along with the cyclone . Models that use elements of both approaches are called statistical @-@ dynamical models .
In 1978 , the first hurricane @-@ tracking model based on atmospheric dynamics — the movable fine @-@ mesh ( MFM ) model — began operating . Within the field of tropical cyclone track forecasting , despite the ever @-@ improving dynamical model guidance which occurred with increased computational power , it was not until the 1980s when numerical weather prediction showed skill , and until the 1990s when it consistently outperformed statistical or simple dynamical models . Predictions of the intensity of a tropical cyclone based on numerical weather prediction continue to be a challenge , since statistical methods continue to show higher skill over dynamical guidance .
= = Advisory , watch , and warning evolution = =
The timing and naming of tropical cyclone advisories , watches , and warnings has changed over time . In 1958 , tropical cyclone advisories were issued every six hours starting at 0400 UTC each day . During 1967 , hurricane watches were used to designate areas where hurricane conditions were possible in the next 24 hours , while hurricane warnings indicated areas where the hurricane center should cross the coast . Small craft , gale , and storm warnings were issued for hurricanes not expected to make landfall . By 1987 , the definition of tropical cyclone watches had changed to areas where gale or hurricane @-@ force winds were possible within 36 hours , with warnings issued when gale or hurricane @-@ force winds were expected within 24 hours . In 1987 , gale watches / warnings were renamed tropical storm watches / warnings . In 1991 , advisory timing shifted back to every six hours starting at 0330 UTC every day . In 1992 , advisory timing changed to every six hours starting at 0300 UTC each day . The length of time used for watches and warnings changed again in 2010 , with watches using a 48 ‑ hour time frame and warnings using a 36 hour time frame .
Within the United States , a separate set of inland tropical cyclone warnings was issued by National Weather Service forecast offices , based upon the latest NHC advisory , during the decade of the 2000s . These warnings used the word " Wind " inserted before the " Watch " or " Warning " , which was dropped for 2005 . Previously , standard High Wind Warnings and Watches were issued ( which denote ≥ 39 MPH winds or ≥ 58 MPH gusts ) . When they were inland , watches and warnings were posted for tropical storm or hurricane @-@ force winds expected during the next 24 and 12 hours , respectively .
= = Current operations = =
During the hurricane season , the National Hurricane Center routinely issues their Tropical Weather Outlook product , which identifies areas of concern within the tropics which could develop into tropical cyclones . If systems occur outside the defined hurricane season , special Tropical Weather Outlooks will be issued . While a tropical cyclone is active , six hourly advisories will be issued , which become more frequent once a tropical cyclone watch or warning are issued . Tropical cyclone watches and warnings are coordinated within the countries and dependencies involved , with the National Hurricane Center coordinating with National Weather Service Forecast Offices concerning storms threatening the United States and its dependencies . Routine coordination occurs at 1700 UTC each day between the Weather Prediction Center and National Hurricane Center to identify systems for the pressure maps three to seven days into the future within the tropics , and points for existing tropical cyclones six to seven days into the future .
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= George Kistiakowsky =
George Bogdanovich Kistiakowsky ( November 18 , 1900 – December 7 , 1982 ) ( Ukrainian : Георгій Богданович Кістяківський , Russian : Георгий Богданович Кистяковский ) was a Ukrainian @-@ American physical chemistry professor at Harvard who participated in the Manhattan Project and later served as President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's Science Advisor .
Born in Kiev in the old Russian Empire , Kistiakowsky fled his homeland during the Russian Civil War . He made his way to Germany , where he earned his PhD in physical chemistry under the supervision of Max Bodenstein at the University of Berlin . He emigrated to the United States in 1926 , where he joined the faculty of Harvard University in 1930 , and became a citizen in 1933 .
During World War II , Kistiakowsky was the head of the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) section responsible for the development of explosives , and the technical director of the Explosives Research Laboratory ( ERL ) , where he oversaw the development of new explosives , including RDX and HMX . He was involved in research into the hydrodynamic theory of explosions , and the development of shaped charges . In October 1943 , he was brought into the Manhattan Project as a consultant . He was soon placed in charge of X Division , which was responsible for the development of the explosive lenses necessary for an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . In July 1945 , he watched as the first one was detonated in the Trinity test . A few weeks later another Fat Man implosion @-@ type weapon was dropped on Nagasaki .
From 1962 to 1965 , Kistiakowsky chaired the National Academy of Sciences 's Committee on Science , Engineering , and Public Policy ( COSEPUP ) , and was its vice president from 1965 to 1973 . He severed his connections with the government in protest against the war in Vietnam , and became active in an antiwar organization , the Council for a Livable World , becoming its chairman in 1977 .
= = Early life = =
George Bogdanovich Kistiakowsky was born in Kiev , in the Kiev Governorate of the Russian Empire ( now part of Ukraine ) , on November 18 , 1900 . George 's grandfather Oleksandr Fedorovych Kistiakovsky was a professor of law and an attorney of the Russian Empire who specialized in criminal law . His father Bogdan Kistiakovsky was Professor of Legal Philosophy at the University of Kiev , and was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in 1919 . Kistiakowsky 's mother was Maria Berendshtam , and he had a brother , Alexander . George 's uncle Ihor Kistiakovsky was the Minister of Internal Affairs of the Ukrainian State .
Kistiakowsky attended private schools in Kiev and Moscow until the Russian Revolution broke out in 1917 . He then joined the anti @-@ Communist White Army . In 1920 he escaped from Russia in a commandeered French ship . After spending time in Turkey and Yugoslavia , he made his way to Germany , where he enrolled at the University of Berlin later that year . In 1925 , he earned his PhD in physical chemistry under the supervision of Max Bodenstein , writing his thesis on the photochemical decomposition of chlorine monoxide and ozone . He then became Bodenstein 's graduate assistant . His first two published papers were elaborations of his thesis , co @-@ written with Bodenstein .
In 1926 , Kistiakowsky traveled to the United States as an International Education Board fellow . Hugh Stott Taylor , another student of Bodenstein , accepted Bodenstein 's assessment of Kistiakowsky , and gave him a place at Princeton University . That year , Kistiakowsky married a Swedish woman , Hildegard Moebius . In 1928 , they had a daughter , Vera , who later became a Professor Emerita of Physics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology . When Kistiakowsky 's two @-@ year fellowship ran out in 1927 , he received a Research Associate and DuPont Fellowship . On October 25 , 1928 , he became an associate professor at Princeton . Taylor and Kistiakowsky published a series of papers together . Encouraged by Taylor , Kistiakowsky also published an American Chemical Society monograph on photochemical processes .
In 1930 , Kistiakowsky joined the faculty of Harvard University , an affiliation that continued throughout his career . At Harvard , his research interests were in thermodynamics , spectroscopy , and chemical kinetics . He became increasingly involved in consulting for the government and industry . He became an associate professor again , this time at Harvard in 1933 . That year he also became an American citizen . In 1938 , he became the Abbott and James Lawrence Professor of Chemistry .
= = World War II = =
= = = National Defense Research Committee = = =
Foreseeing an expanded role for science in World War II , which the United States had not yet joined , President Franklin D. Roosevelt created the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) on June 27 , 1940 , with Vannevar Bush as its chairman . James B. Conant , the President of Harvard , was appointed head of Division B , which was responsible for bombs , fuels , gases and chemicals . He appointed Kistiakowsky to head its Section A @-@ 1 , which was concerned with explosives . In June 1941 , the NDRC was absorbed into the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) . Bush became Chairman of the OSRD , Conant succeeded him as Chairman of the NDRC , and Kistiakowsky became head of Section B. In a reorganization in December 1942 , Division B was broken up , and he became head of Division 8 , which was responsible for explosives and propellants , remaining in this position until February 1944 .
Kistiakowsky was unhappy with the state of American knowledge of explosives and propellants . Conant established the Explosives Research Laboratory ( ERL ) near the laboratories of the Bureau of Mines in Bruceton , Pennsylvania in October 1940 , and Kistiakowsky initially supervised its activities , making occasional visits ; but Conant did not formally appoint him as its Technical Director until the spring of 1941 . Although initially hampered by a shortage of facilities , the ERL grew from five staff in 1941 to a wartime peak of 162 full @-@ time laboratory staff in 1945 . An important field of research was RDX . This powerful explosive had been developed by the British before the war . The challenge was to develop an industrial process that could produce it on a large scale . RDX was also mixed with TNT to produce Composition B , which was widely used in various munitions , and torpex , which was used in torpedoes and depth charges . Pilot plants were in operation by May 1942 , and large @-@ scale production followed in 1943 .
In response to a special request for an explosive that could be smuggled through Japanese checkpoints by Chinese guerrillas , Kistakowsky mixed HMX , a non @-@ toxic explosive produced as a by @-@ product of the RDX process , with flour to create " Aunt Jemima " , after a brand of pancake flour . This was an edible explosive , which could pass for regular flour , and even be used in cooking .
In addition to research into synthetic explosives like RDX and HMX , the ERL investigated the properties of detonations and shock waves . This was initiated as a pure research project , without obvious or immediate applications . Kistiakowsky visited England in 1941 and again in 1942 , where he met with British experts , including William Penney and Geoffrey Taylor . When Kistiakowsky and Edgar Bright Wilson , Jr . , surveyed the existing state of knowledge , they found several areas that warranted further investigation . Kistiakowsky began to look into the Chapman – Jouguet model , which describes the way the shock wave created by a detonation propagates .
At this time , the efficacy of the Chapman – Jouguet model was still in doubt , and it was the subject of studies by John von Neumann at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study . Kistiakowsky realized that the deviations from hydrodynamic theory were the result of the speed of the chemical reactions themselves . To control the reaction , calculations down to the microsecond level were needed . Section 8 was drawn into the investigation of shaped charges , whose mechanism was explained by Taylor and James Tuck in 1943 .
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
At the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , research into implosion had been proceeding under Seth Neddermeyer , but his division had worked with cylinders and small charges , and had only produced objects that looked like rocks . Their research was accorded a low priority , owing to expectations that a gun @-@ type nuclear weapon design would work for both uranium @-@ 235 and plutonium , and implosion technology would not be required .
In September 1943 , the Los Alamos Laboratory 's director , Robert Oppenheimer , arranged for von Neumann to visit Los Alamos and investigate implosion with a fresh set of eyes . After reviewing Neddermeyer 's studies , and discussing the matter with Edward Teller , von Neumann suggested the use of high explosive in shaped charges to implode a sphere , which he showed could not only result in a faster assembly of fissile material than was possible with the gun method , but which could greatly reduce the amount of material required . The prospect of more efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer , Teller and Hans Bethe , but they decided that an expert on explosives was required . Kistiakowsky 's name was immediately suggested , and he was brought into the project as a consultant in October 1943 .
Kistiakowsky was initially reluctant to come , " partly because " , he later explained , " I didn 't think the bomb would be ready in time and I was interested in helping to win the war " . At Los Alamos , he began reorganizing the implosion effort . He introduced techniques such as photography and X @-@ Rays to study the behavior of shaped charges . The former had been extensively employed by the ERL , while the latter had been described in papers by Tuck , who also suggested using three @-@ dimensional explosive lenses . As with other aspects of the Manhattan Project , research into explosive lenses followed multiple lines of inquiry simultaneously because , as Kistiakowsky noted , it was " impossible to predict which of these basic techniques will be the more successful . "
Kistiakowsky brought with him to Los Alamos a detailed knowledge of all the studies into shaped charges , of explosives like Composition B , and of the procedures used at the ERL in 1942 and 1943 . Increasingly , the ERL itself would be drawn into the implosion effort ; its deputy director Duncan MacDougall also took charge of the Manhattan Project 's Project Q. Kistiakowsky replaced Neddermeyer as head of E ( for explosives ) Division in February 1944 .
The implosion program acquired a new urgency after Emilio Segrè 's group at Los Alamos verified that plutonium produced in the nuclear reactors contained plutonium @-@ 240 , which made it unsuitable for use in a gun @-@ type weapon . A series of crisis meetings in July 1944 concluded that the only prospect for a working plutonium weapon was implosion . In August , Oppenheimer reorganized the entire laboratory to concentrate on it . A new explosives group , X Division , was created under Kistiakowsky to develop the lenses .
Under Kistiakowsky 's leadership , X @-@ Division designed the complex explosive lenses needed to compress the fissile plutonium pit . These employed two explosives with significantly different velocities of detonation in order to produce the required wave form . Kistiakowsky chose Baratol for the slow explosive . After experimenting with various fast explosives , X @-@ Division settled on Composition B. Work on molding the explosives into the right shape continued into 1945 . The lenses needed to be flawless , and techniques for casting Composition B and Baratol had to be developed . The ERL managed to accomplish this by devising a procedure for preparing Baratol in a form that was easy to cast . In March 1945 , Kistiakowsky became part of the Cowpuncher Committee , so @-@ called because it rode herd on the implosion effort . On July 16 , 1945 , Kistiakowsky watched as the first device was detonated in the Trinity test . A few weeks later a Fat Man implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon was dropped on Nagasaki .
Along with his work on implosion , Kistiakowsky contributed to skiing in Los Alamos by using rings of explosives to fell trees for a ski slope — leading to the establishment of Sawyer 's Hill Ski Tow Association . He divorced Hildegard in 1942 and married Irma E. Shuler in 1945 . They were divorced in 1962 , and he married Elaine Mahoney .
= = White House service = =
In 1957 , during the Eisenhower Administration , Kistiakowsky was appointed to the President 's Science Advisory Committee , and succeeded James R. Killian as chairman in 1959 . He directed the Office of Science and Technology Policy from 1959 to 1961 , when he was succeeded by Jerome B. Wiesner .
In 1958 , Kistiakowsky suggested to President Eisenhower that inspection of foreign military facilities was not sufficient to control their nuclear weapons . He cited the difficulty in monitoring missile submarines , and proposed that the arms control strategy focus on disarmament rather than inspections . In January 1960 , as part of arms control planning and negotiation , he suggested the " threshold concept " . Under this proposal , all nuclear tests above the level of seismic detection technology would be forbidden . After such an agreement , the US and USSR would work jointly to improve detection technology , revising the permissible test yield downward as techniques improved . This example of the " national means of technical verification " , a euphemism for sensitive intelligence collection used in arms control , would provide safeguards , without raising the on @-@ site inspection requirement to a level unacceptable to the Soviets . The US introduced the threshold concept to the Soviets at the Geneva arms control conference in January 1960 and the Soviets , in March , responded favorably , suggesting a threshold of a given seismic magnitude . Talks broke down as a result of the U @-@ 2 Crisis of 1960 in May .
At the same time as the early nuclear arms control work , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , General Nathan F. Twining , sent a memorandum , in August 1959 , to the Secretary of Defense , Neil McElroy , which suggested that the Strategic Air Command ( SAC ) formally be assigned responsibility to prepare the national nuclear target list , and a single plan for nuclear operations . Up to that point , the Army , Navy , and Air Force had done their own target planning . This had led to the same objectives being targeted multiple times by the different services . The separate service plans were not mutually supporting as in , for example , the Navy destroying an air defense facility on the route of an Air Force bomber going to a deeper target . While Twining had sent the memo to McElroy , the members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff disagreed on the policy during early 1960 . Thomas Gates , who succeeded McElroy , asked President Dwight D. Eisenhower to decide the policy .
Eisenhower said he would not " leave his successor with the monstrosity " of the uncoordinated and un @-@ integrated forces that then existed . In early November 1960 , he sent Kistiakowsky to SAC Headquarters in Omaha to evaluate its war plans . Initially , Kistiakowsky was not given access , and Eisenhower sent him back , with a much stronger set of orders for SAC officers to cooperate . Kistiaknowsky 's report , presented on November 29 , described uncoordinated plans with huge numbers of targets , many of which would be attacked by multiple forces , resulting in overkill . Eisenhower was shocked by the plans , and focused not just on the creation of the Single Integrated Operational Plan ( SIOP ) , but on the entire process of picking targets , generating requirements , and planning for nuclear war operations .
= = Later life = =
Between his work for the Manhattan Project and his White House service , and again after he left the White House , Kistiakowsky was a professor of physical chemistry at Harvard . When asked to teach a freshmen class in 1957 , he turned to Hubert Alyea , whose lecture style had impressed him . Alyea sent him some 700 4 @-@ by @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 10 @.@ 2 by 15 @.@ 2 cm ) index cards containing details of lecture demonstrations . Aside from the cards , Kistiakowsky never prepared the demonstrations . He later recalled :
I didn 't think that was giving mother Nature a sporting chance . I would come into the lecture hall , glance at the chemicals and pile of cards and announce to the students " let 's see what Alyea has for us today " . I never used a text book , only your cards . I would glance at the instructions and carry out the experiment . If it worked we would bless you and pass on to the next demonstration . If it didn 't work we would curse you , and spend the rest of the lecture trying to make it work .
He retired from Harvard as professor emeritus in 1972 .
From 1962 to 1965 , Kistiakowsky chaired the National Academy of Science 's Committee on Science , Engineering , and Public Policy ( COSEPUP ) , and was its vice president from 1965 to 1973 . He received several awards over the years , including the Department of the Air Force Decoration for Exceptional Civilian Service in 1957 . He was awarded the Medal for Merit by President Truman , the Medal of Freedom by President Eisenhower in 1961 , and the National Medal of Science by President Lyndon Johnson in 1967 . He was also a recipient of the Priestley Medal from the American Chemical Society in 1972 and the Franklin Medal from Harvard .
In later years , Kistiakowsky was active in an antiwar organization , the Council for a Livable World . He severed his connections with the government in protest against the US involvement in the Vietnam War . In 1977 , he assumed the chairmanship of the Council , campaigning against nuclear proliferation . He died of cancer in Cambridge , Massachusetts , on December 17 , 1982 . His body was cremated , and his ashes scattered near his summer home on Cape Cod , Massachusetts . His papers are in the Harvard University archives .
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= Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) =
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " is a song by American actress and singer @-@ songwriter Lindsay Lohan , taken from her second studio album , A Little More Personal ( Raw ) ( 2005 ) . The alternative rock song was written by Lohan as a letter to her father , Michael Lohan , who survived a car crash for which he was charged with driving under the influence of alcohol . Additional writing and production was done by Kara DioGuardi and Greg Wells , while Lohan recorded the song on her trailer during the shoot of Herbie : Fully Loaded . " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " was first previewed at AOL Music 's First Listen on September 30 , 2005 and was sent to radio in the United States on October 18 , 2005 by Casablanca Records as the first single from the album .
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " received mixed reviews from music critics , who praised Lohan 's conviction on the song , but considering it a cliché " I @-@ hate @-@ you @-@ Daddy " lament . The song achieved mild commercial success , peaking at number 7 in Australia , number 74 in Austria , number 14 on the United States Hot Digital Songs , and at number 57 on Billboard Hot 100 . An accompanying music video , directed by Lohan herself , portrays the singer and her actual sister , Ali , listening to her parents arguing and fighting in the living room of their home . " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " was performed by Lohan at the American Music Awards of 2005 .
= = Background and composition = =
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " was written by Lohan as a letter to her father , Michael Lohan , who was incarcerated in June 2005 after surviving a car crash for which he was charged with driving under the influence of alcohol . Additional writing and song production was done by Greg Wells and Kara DioGuardi , who revealed , " If you solo the vocals you 'll hear race cars , because we brought the studio to [ Lindsay 's ] trailer on Herbie : Fully Loaded . I 'm not kidding ! She had no time to do the record , so she would be on her lunch break , and I 'd be like , ' Throw that thing down your throat and get over here , ' cause we got to finish these vocals ! ' So I sat for 14 hours on the set and would grab her for , like , 10 minutes at a time . The poor girl . That 's the reality of young Hollywood . When they 're hot , they 're worked to death . It was 18 / 20 @-@ hour days . ... And I swear : ' Vroom ! Vroom ! ' You can hear it in the back . " " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " was first previewed at AOL Music 's First Listen on September 30 , 2005 , and was sent to mainstream radio in the United States on October 18 , 2005 , as the lead single from A Little More Personal ( Raw ) . The song was released digitally in the United States on November 8 , 2005 , while being released internationally on January 15 , 2006 by Casablanca Records .
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " is a alternative rock song that lasts for three minutes and 41 seconds . According to the digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com , the song is composed in the key of G ♯ minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute , while Lohan 's vocal range spans from F ♯ 3 to D ♯ 5 . When asked about the lyrical content of the song , Lohan revealed , " A lot of people go through family issues , abuse and that kind of thing . I think it 's important to show that other people go through it . [ ... ] I hope [ my father ] see what I say in the song is , ' I love you , ' so many times , that I need him and the crazy things in my life . I hope he sees the positive side of the video rather than the negative . The video is kind of offensive , but it is very raw . He 's my father . I need someone to walk me down the aisle when I get married . " The single 's b @-@ side , " My Innocence " , features a similar message to Lohan 's father .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " received mixed reviews from music critics . Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone noted " the album de @-@ emphasizes the ( very ) guilty pop pleasures of her 2004 debut in favor of leaden I @-@ hate @-@ you @-@ Daddy laments such as " Confessions of a Broken Heart " and " My Innocence " . Entertainment Weekly writer Leah Greenblatt commented that " it 's hard to imagine a more explicit snapshot of the highly publicized family problems that have plagued the star than " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " " . PopMatters 's Whitney Strub said " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " " immediately commences with a line about ' wait [ ing ] for the postman to bring me a letter ' , which suggests songwriters dipping into the well of cliché without worrying about freshness , " while commenting that " the world might not need another version of Britney Spears ' ' E @-@ Mail My Heart ' , but good lord , that song came out in 1999 . Perhaps a text @-@ message might arrive faster than snail @-@ mail in late 2005 , should Lohan 's song @-@ persona deign to enter the 21st century " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " achieved mild commercial success around the world , including reaching number seven in Australia on the week of its debut on chart . The song spent 13 weeks on the chart , peaking at number 45 on the last . In Austria , the song reached number 74 on the week of March 24 , 2006 . In the United States , the song peaked at number 14 on Hot Digital Songs on the week of December 3 , 2005 , while reaching number 57 on Billboard Hot 100 on the week of December 24 , 2005 , becoming her first and only single to chart on the Hot 100 in the US .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " was directed by Lohan in Chelsea , Manhattan , New York City , and references her father Michael 's alcoholism and alleged domestic abuse . Tommy Mottola , head of Casablanca Records , revealed that no one could direct the video better than Lohan herself , who said to the singer , " ' No one knows this song better than you , no one knows this situation better than you . ' It 's a lot to take on , but I told her she 's ready , and we 'll give her all the support she needs " . Lohan said that the video 's storefront setting was chosen because , in her words , " my life is on display " . The singer also wanted to break a mirror during the bathroom scenes , because she wanted to show her real feelings in the music video . Assistant director Jeb Bryan said to Lohan , " This is real glass , Lindsay . We weren 't prepared for you to break these things . [ ... ] Do you want this slow motion ? " She responded , " Regular frame will make it more violent . [ ... ] I don 't want it to be too pretty " . The music video was first aired on MTV 's Making the Video , and later released to iTunes Store on October 25 , 2005 .
In the video , Lohan hides in the bathroom and prays a rosary as her parents , Michael and Dina ( played by Drake Andrew and Victoria Hay , respectively ) , argue and fight in the living room . Her sister , Ali ( who plays herself , according to Lohan ) , goes to her bedroom after coming home from ballet class , breaks into tears , saying a rosary . The three rooms are shown behind a department store window , outside which a crowd of observers form . At the end of the video , Lohan stands behind the glass and photographs of memories fly up onto it , from which she breaks out . As a response to the music video , Michael Lohan wrote a letter to the New York Daily News , saying , " while I always considered and expressed how truly blessed Lindsay , as well as my other children are , I never realized how blessed I am to have a daughter as amazing as Lindsay . Hold onto my shirt honey , soon enough you 'll be able to hold on to me ! "
= = = Critical reception = = =
The music video for " Confessions of A Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " received widespread critical acclaim with some calling it one of the greatest heartbreaking music videos of all time . When reviewing the video , VH1 stated that " “ Daddy issues ” is an understatement when it comes to this melodramatic — and we admit , effective — clip . "
= = Track listings = =
CD single
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " – 3 : 41
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " ( Dave Audé Remix ) – 4 : 45
" My Innocence " – 4 : 19
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " ( Music Video )
Digital download
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " – 3 : 41
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " ( Dave Audé Remix ) – 4 : 45
" My Innocence " – 4 : 19
= = Charts = =
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= Transient lunar phenomenon =
A transient lunar phenomenon ( TLP ) or lunar transient phenomenon ( LTP ) is a short @-@ lived light , color , or change in appearance on the surface of the Moon .
Claims of short @-@ lived lunar phenomena go back at least 1 @,@ 000 years , with some having been observed independently by multiple witnesses or reputable scientists . Nevertheless , the majority of transient lunar phenomenon reports are irreproducible and do not possess adequate control experiments that could be used to distinguish among alternative hypotheses to explain their origins .
Most lunar scientists will acknowledge that transient events such as outgassing and impact cratering do occur over geologic time : the controversy lies in the frequency of such events .
The term was created by Patrick Moore in his co @-@ authorship of NASA Technical Report R @-@ 277 Chronological Catalog of Reported Lunar Events , published in 1968 .
= = Description of events = =
Reports of transient lunar phenomena range from foggy patches to permanent changes of the lunar landscape . Cameron classifies these as ( 1 ) gaseous , involving mists and other forms of obscuration , ( 2 ) reddish colorations , ( 3 ) green , blue or violet colorations , ( 4 ) brightenings , and ( 5 ) darkenings . Two extensive catalogs of transient lunar phenomena exist , with the most recent tallying 2 @,@ 254 events going back to the 6th century . Of the most reliable of these events , at least one @-@ third come from the vicinity of the Aristarchus plateau .
A few of the more famous historical accounts of transient phenomena include the following :
On June 18 , 1178 , five or more monks from Canterbury reported an upheaval on the Moon shortly after sunset . " There was a bright new moon , and as usual in that phase its horns were tilted toward the east ; and suddenly the upper horn split in two . From the midpoint of this division a flaming torch sprang up , spewing out , over a considerable distance , fire , hot coals , and sparks . Meanwhile the body of the moon which was below writhed , as it were , in anxiety , and , to put it in the words of those who reported it to me and saw it with their own eyes , the moon throbbed like a wounded snake . Afterwards it resumed its proper state . This phenomenon was repeated a dozen times or more , the flame assuming various twisting shapes at random and then returning to normal . Then after these transformations the moon from horn to horn , that is along its whole length , took on a blackish appearance . " Before you start to think these monks were crazy , you need to look at the date this happened . In 1178 , how would you describe seeing meteors crash into a new moon ? In 1976 , Jack Hartung proposed that this described the formation of the Giordano Bruno crater . However , more recent studies suggest that it appears very unlikely the 1178 event was related to the formation of Crater Giordano Bruno , or was even a true transient lunar phenomenon at all . The millions of tons of lunar debris ejected from an impact large enough to leave a 22 @-@ km @-@ wide crater would have resulted in an unprecedentedly intense , week @-@ long meteor storm on Earth . No accounts of such a memorable storm have been found in any known historical records , including several astronomical archives from around the world . In light of this , it is suspected that the group of monks ( the event 's only known witnesses ) saw the atmospheric explosion of a directly oncoming meteor in chance alignment , from their specific vantage point , with the far more distant moon .
During the night of April 19 , 1787 , the British astronomer Sir William Herschel noticed three red glowing spots on the dark part of the Moon . He informed King George III and other astronomers of his observations . Herschel attributed the phenomena to erupting volcanoes and perceived the luminosity of the brightest of the three as greater than the brightness of a comet that had been discovered on April 10 . His observations were made while an aurora borealis ( northern lights ) rippled above Padua , Italy . Aurora activity that far south from the Arctic Circle was very rare . Padua 's display and Herschel 's observations had happened a few days before the number of sunspots had peaked in May 1787 .
In 1866 , the experienced lunar observer and mapmaker J. F. Julius Schmidt claimed that the Linné crater had changed its appearance . Based on drawings made earlier by J. H. Schröter , as well as personal observations and drawings made between 1841 and 1843 , he stated that the crater " at the time of oblique illumination cannot at all be seen " ( his emphasis ) , whereas at high illumination , it was visible as a bright spot . Based on repeat observations , he further stated that " Linné can never be seen under any illumination as a crater of the normal type " and that " a local change has taken place " . Today , Linné is visible as a normal young impact crater with a diameter of about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) .
On November 2 , 1958 , the Russian astronomer Nikolai A. Kozyrev observed an apparent half @-@ hour " eruption " that took place on the central peak of Alphonsus crater using a 48 @-@ inch ( 122 @-@ cm ) reflector telescope equipped with a spectrometer . During this time , the obtained spectra showed evidence for bright gaseous emission bands due to the molecules C2 and C3 . While exposing his second spectrogram , he noticed " a marked increase in the brightness of the central region and an unusual white colour . " Then , " all of a sudden the brightness started to decrease " and the resulting spectrum was normal .
On October 29 , 1963 , two Aeronautical Chart and Information Center cartographers , James Clarke Greenacre and Edward M. Barr , at the Lowell Observatory , Flagstaff , Arizona , manually recorded very bright red , orange , and pink colour phenomena on the southwest side of Cobra Head ; a hill southeast of the lunar valley Vallis Schröteri ; and the southwest interior rim of the Aristarchus crater . This event sparked a major change in attitude towards TLP reports . According to Willy Ley : " The first reaction in professional circles was , naturally , surprise , and hard on the heels of the surprise there followed an apologetic attitude , the apologies being directed at a long @-@ dead great astronomer , Sir William Herschel . " A notation by Winifred Sawtell Cameron states ( 1978 , Event Serial No. 778 ) : " This and their November observations started the modern interest and observing the Moon . " The credibility of their findings stemmed from Greenacre 's exemplary reputation as an impeccable cartographer , rather than from any photographic evidence .
On the night of November 1 – 2 , 1963 , a few days after Greenacre 's event , at the Observatoire du Pic @-@ du @-@ Midi in the French Pyrenees , Zdeněk Kopal and Thomas Rackham made the first photographs of a " wide area lunar luminescence " . His article in Scientific American transformed it into one of the most widely publicized TLP events . Kopal , like others , had argued that Solar Energetic Particles could be the cause of such a phenomenon .
During the Apollo 11 mission in 1969 , Houston radioed to Apollo 11 : " We 've got an observation you can make if you have some time up there . There 's been some lunar transient events reported in the vicinity of Aristarchus . " Astronomers in Bochum , West Germany , had observed a bright glow on the lunar surface — the same sort of eerie luminescence that has intrigued Moon watchers for centuries . The report was passed on to Houston and thence to the astronauts . Almost immediately , Michael Collins reported back : " Hey , Houston , I 'm looking north up toward Aristarchus now , and there 's an area that is considerably more illuminated than the surrounding area . It seems to have a slight amount of fluorescence . "
In 1992 , Audouin Dollfus of the Observatoire de Paris reported anomalous features on the floor of Langrenus crater using a one @-@ meter ( 3 @.@ 2 @-@ foot ) telescope . While observations on the night of December 29 , 1992 , were normal , unusually high albedo and polarization features were recorded the following night that did not change in appearance over the six minutes of data collection . Observations three days later showed a similar , but smaller , anomaly in the same vicinity . While the viewing conditions for this region were close to specular , it was argued that the amplitude of the observations were not consistent with a specular reflection of sunlight . The favored hypothesis was that this was the consequence of light scattering from clouds of airborne particles resulting from a release of gas . The fractured floor of this crater was cited as a possible source of the gas .
= = Explanations = =
Explanations for the transient lunar phenomena fall in four classes : outgassing , impact events , electrostatic phenomena , and unfavorable observation conditions .
= = = Outgassing = = =
Some TLPs may be caused by gas escaping from underground cavities . These gaseous events are purported to display a distinctive reddish hue , while others have appeared as white clouds or an indistinct haze . The majority of TLPs appear to be associated with floor @-@ fractured craters , the edges of lunar maria , or in other locations linked by geologists with volcanic activity . However , these are some of the most common targets when viewing the Moon , and this correlation could be an observational bias .
In support of the outgassing hypothesis , data from the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer indicate the recent outgassing of radon to the surface . In particular , results show that radon gas was emanating from the vicinity of the craters Aristarchus and Kepler during the time of this two @-@ year mission . These observations could be explained by the slow and visually imperceptible diffusion of gas to the surface , or by discrete explosive events . In support of explosive outgassing , it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km- ( 1 @.@ 9 mi- ) diameter region of the lunar surface was " recently " modified by a gas release event . The age of this feature is believed to be about 1 million years old , suggesting that such large phenomena occur only infrequently .
= = = Impact events = = =
Impact events are continually occurring on the lunar surface . The most common events are those associated with micrometeorites , as might be encountered during meteor showers . Impact flashes from such events have been detected from multiple and simultaneous Earth @-@ based observations . Tables of impacts recorded by video cameras exist for years since 2005 many of which are associated with meteor showers . Furthermore , impact clouds were detected following the crash of ESA 's SMART @-@ 1 spacecraft , India 's Moon Impact Probe and NASA 's LCROSS . Impact events leave a visible scar on the surface , and these could be detected by analyzing before and after photos of sufficiently high resolution . No impact craters formed between the Clementine ( global resolution 100 metre , selected areas 7 @-@ 20 metre ) and SMART @-@ 1 ( resolution 50 metre ) missions have been identified .
= = = Electrostatic phenomena = = =
It has been suggested that effects related to either electrostatic charging or discharging might be able to account for some of the transient lunar phenomena . One possibility is that electrodynamic effects related to the fracturing of near @-@ surface materials could charge any gases that might be present , such as implanted solar wind or radiogenic daughter products . If this were to occur at the surface , the subsequent discharge from this gas might be able to give rise to phenomena visible from Earth . Alternatively , it has been proposed that the triboelectric charging of particles within a gas @-@ borne dust cloud could give rise to electrostatic discharges visible from Earth . Finally , electrostatic levitation of dust near the terminator could potentially give rise to some form of phenomenon visible from Earth .
= = = Unfavourable observation conditions = = =
It is possible that many transient phenomena might not be associated with the Moon itself but could be a result of unfavourable observing conditions or phenomena associated with the Earth . For instance , some reported transient phenomena are for objects near the resolution of the employed telescopes . The Earth 's atmosphere can give rise to significant temporal distortions that could be confused with actual lunar phenomena ( an effect known as astronomical seeing ) . Other non @-@ lunar explanations include the viewing of Earth @-@ orbiting satellites and meteors or observational error .
= = Debated status of TLPs = =
The most significant problem that faces reports of transient lunar phenomena is that the vast majority of these were made either by a single observer or at a single location on Earth ( or both ) . The multitude of reports for transient phenomena occurring at the same place on the Moon could be used as evidence supporting their existence . However , in the absence of eyewitness reports from multiple observers at multiple locations on Earth for the same event , these must be regarded with caution . As discussed above , an equally plausible hypothesis for some of these events is that they are caused by the terrestrial atmosphere . If an event were to be observed at two different places on Earth at the same time , this could be used as evidence against an atmospheric origin .
One attempt to overcome the above problems with transient phenomena reports was made during the Clementine mission by a network of amateur astronomers . Several events were reported , of which four of these were photographed both beforehand and afterward by the spacecraft . However , careful analysis of these images shows no discernible differences at these sites . This does not necessarily imply that these reports were a result of observational error , as it is possible that outgassing events on the lunar surface might not leave a visible marker , but neither is it encouraging for the hypothesis that these were authentic lunar phenomena .
Observations are currently being coordinated by the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers and the British Astronomical Association to re @-@ observe sites where transient lunar phenomena were reported in the past . By documenting the appearance of these features under the same illumination and libration conditions , it is possible to judge whether some reports were simply due to a misinterpretation of what the observer regarded as an abnormality . Furthermore , with digital images , it is possible to simulate atmospheric spectral dispersion , astronomical seeing blur and light scattering by our atmosphere to determine if these phenomena could explain some of the original TLP reports .
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= Chief Keef =
Keith Cozart ( born August 15 , 1995 ) , better known by his stage name Chief Keef , is an American rapper and record producer from Chicago , Illinois . During his teenage years and while under house arrest , Keef 's music videos were met with acclaim from local high school students . His increasing popularity led to him being the subject of a brief bidding war among labels . Ultimately , Keef signed a major record deal with Interscope Records and later signed with 1017 Brick Squad . Keef also became the CEO of his own record label , Glory Boyz Entertainment , which later developed into Glo Gang . His debut album Finally Rich was released on December 18 , 2012 .
Since becoming famous , Keef has continued to experience ongoing legal issues . Despite being dropped from Interscope in late 2014 , Keef continued self @-@ releasing mixtapes through his Glo Gang label . Although Keef had originally planned Bang 3 to be released as his second album , a then @-@ track from the album , " Nobody " , developed into its own project . Keef released Nobody as a full @-@ length album in December 2014 , while continuing to delay the often @-@ pushed back Bang 3 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life ( 1995 – 2010 ) = = =
Chief Keef was born Keith Cozart in Chicago , Illinois when his mother was 16 , and is named after his deceased uncle . He grew up in the Englewood neighborhood on the city 's South Side . Keef is estranged from his biological father ; when he was a minor , Keef 's legal guardian was his grandmother , whom he lived with during his residence in Chicago . He began rapping at a very young age , regularly listed as 5 , using his mother 's karaoke machine and blank tapes to record his music . During his childhood , Keef attended Dulles Elementary School and the Banner School , a therapeutic day school . Keef dropped out of Dyett High School at age 15 .
= = = Early years , Finally Rich , and subsequent mixtapes ( 2011 – 13 ) = = =
In 2011 , Keef first earned local attention from Chicago 's South Side community with his mixtapes , The Glory Road and Bang . In December , Keef fired gunshots from a Pontiac Grand Prix in Chicago 's Washington Park neighborhood . Police showed up at the scene and the incident resulted in Keef being arrested and charged with unlawful use of a weapon . Keef was consequently placed under house arrest at his grandmother 's house for 30 days , followed by another 30 days of home confinement . It has been noted that by the time this incident occurred , Keef had already achieved local South Side popularity , and that much of his early fan base consisted of high school students in the area . While under house arrest , Keef posted several videos to his YouTube account . These videos were at the forefront of Chicago 's hip hop subgenre , drill . The attention he received increased during the short time between the release of his mixtapes , Bang and Back From the Dead , and music videos , including " Bang " , " 3Hunna " and " I Don 't Like " . Once his house arrest ended , WorldStarHipHop released a video of a child hysterically celebrating Keef 's release from house arrest , affording Keef further virality . Early in his music career , Keef 's song " I Don 't Like " became a local hit in Chicago , which was described by a local party promoter , as " the perfect Chicago song because ' niggas just hate everything out here . ' " It also caught fellow Chicago rapper Kanye West 's attention , and West created a remix of the song with rappers Pusha T , Jadakiss and Big Sean . In response to these events , David Drake of Spin writes that in 2012 , Keef " suddenly shot up out of obscurity . "
In the summer of 2012 , Keef was the subject of a bidding war with many labels to sign him , including Young Jeezy 's CTE World . While 2013 proved to be a relatively quiet year , in terms of his music output , Keef began the year by signing with Interscope Records , as a separate deal promised his own label imprint , Glory Boyz Entertainment ( GBE ) . The deal was worth $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 over a three album layout , as well as an additional $ 440 @,@ 000 in advance , to establish GBE . The deal also set up rights for Interscope to pull out of the contract in the case that Keef 's debut album failed to sell 250 @,@ 000 copies by December 2013 . Chief Keef 's debut studio album Finally Rich , was released on December 18 , 2012 . Featured guests on the album included rappers 50 Cent , Wiz Khalifa , Young Jeezy , Rick Ross and his fellow Glory Boyz member Lil Reese .
On March 26 , 2013 , it was announced that Keef would be a part of XXL Magazine 's 2013 Freshman Class . On May 8 , 2013 , Gucci Mane announced via Twitter that Chief Keef was the newest member of 1017 Brick Squad Records .
Keef was featured on " Hold My Liquor " , the fifth track off Kanye West 's album , Yeezus , released on June 18 , 2013 . Keef 's contributions to the track were praised by musician Lou Reed , with Reed stating , " ' Hold My Liquor ' is just heartbreaking , and particularly coming from where it 's coming from – listen to that incredibly poignant hook from a tough guy like Chief Keef , wow . "
On his 18th birthday , August 15 , 2013 , Chief Keef celebrated by releasing the mixtape Bang , Pt . 2 . Bang , Pt . 2 was highly anticipated as the first project following his debut album , but received a mixed to negative critical response . On October 12 , 2013 a further mixtape , Almighty Sosa was released . Like Bang , Pt . 2 , Almighty So also received mixed to negative critical responses . Following his October 2013 jail term ( see § Legal issues ) , he began working on his second studio album and a biopic .
= = = Bang 3 , Nobody , and The Cozart ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = =
Keef began experimenting with the production of his music in 2014 , which Meaghan Garvey of The Fader noted as being fitting for Keef , as the rapper has " always been more concerned with vibe than meaning , and production is his most efficient tool to create a mood without getting bogged down by pesky syntax . " In January , Keef announced working on a new mixtape entitled Bang 3 . In February , Keef revealed the cover art to his upcoming mixtape Back From The Dead 2 , which served as the sequel to his critically acclaimed mixtape , Back From The Dead . During the month , Keef stated that his former lean addiction and bad mixing contributed to the lack of quality music on his two mixtape projects Bang Pt . 2 and Almighty So and that he was also disappointed in both projects . Later in the month , Keef announced an EP before his second studio album Bang 3 , entitled Bang 4 , as a preview . The following day , Fredo Santana announced that he and Keef were going to release a collaboration album . In March , Keef released the first official single from Bang 3 entitled " Fuck Rehab " featuring his fellow Glo Gang artist and cousin Mario " Blood Money " Hess , which marked Hess 's final appearance on a song before his death on April 9 , 2014 . On March 14 , Keef released the official music video for " Fuck Rehab " . Although Interscope executive Larry Jackson announced that Bang 3 would be released on June 10 , it was again delayed .
In October 2014 , Keef was dropped by Interscope Records , but confirmed via Twitter that every project he had planned , including the release of the long @-@ awaited Bang 3 would still be released , as he planned . Young Chop criticized Interscope 's decision to drop Keef . Despite being set for a Christmas 2014 release , Bang 3 did not materialize . Keef 's mixtapes , Mansion Musick , which was set for a November 28 release , and Thot Breakers , which was set to release on February 14 , 2015 , were also noted to not release as scheduled . However , Keef was successful in releasing Big Gucci Sosa , a 12 @-@ track collaborative mixtape , with Gucci Mane , as well as Back From the Dead 2 , which was made available for digital download from iTunes . Keef experimented with the production of his own tracks , self @-@ producing 16 of the 20 songs on the mixtape . David Drake of Pitchfork Media , stated , " For his first steps into rapper @-@ producer territory , he shows promise — though it 's tough to imagine most of these beats working outside the context of a Chief Keef album , as they are primed to frame his vocals . " Rolling Stone ranked the mixtape 25th on its list of the 40 best rap albums of 2014 , with the publication commenting , " The bleak world from which he came still shapes his sound ; it 's a bleak and lonely record , with few guests and a darkly psychedelic shape formed by drugs and likely PTSD . Yet he finds a gleeful humanity inside the world 's rotten core , with bluntly potent , economical rapping that gets strong mileage per word . " In November , Keef announced Nobody , a " Glo Producer album " that featured guest vocals from Kanye West and Tadoe . The album was set to be released on December 2 , but was ultimately released on December 16 . The album 's title track was noted for being one of Keef 's more emotionally driven outputs , with Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound writing , " the track itself feels like the apex of a night spent binge @-@ drinking . " Additionally , the album was awarded a 7 @.@ 0 / 10 score by Pitchfork Media 's Meaghan Garvey .
On February 18 , 2015 , Keef released Sorry 4 the Weight , a 20 @-@ track mixtape . Elliott Pearson of The Alibi commented " Sorry 4 the Weight is another consistent chapter in the rapper ’ s singular Midwestern gothic repertoire , and if ' What Up ' is any indication , he ’ s made serious progress as a beat @-@ maker too . " The mixtape was largely a solo effort , featuring only Andy Milonakis and Glo Gang labelmate , Benji Glo . In 2015 , Keef 's track " Faneto " was noted for slowly building momentum since its October 2014 release . On April 24 , 2015 , Keef announced his next album , titled The Cozart , adding that it would be released soon .
In May 2015 , Keef signed with FilmOn Music , a division of media tycoon Alki David .
On July 11 , 2015 , Marvin Carr , better known by his stage name , Capo , a longtime member of Keef 's Glo Gang label , was shot and killed in a drive @-@ by shooting in Chicago . Upon killing Capo , the drivers of the vehicle reportedly struck a stroller with 13 @-@ month @-@ old Dillan Harris in it , killing the baby instantly . Keef later announced via Twitter that he would be holding a free benefit concert to tribute Capo , as well as encourage concertgoers to donate to Harris ' family . Additionally , Keef announced the formation of the Stop the Violence Now Foundation , in an attempt to decrease crime in Chicago . Due to outstanding warrants in Illinois , Keef was scheduled to attend the concert via hologram from a sound stage in Beverly Hills . The concert , organized by HologramUSA and FilmOn Music originally intended to be held in Chicago 's Redmoon Theater , faced a series of delays after Chicago mayor Rahm Emanuel 's office claimed Keef was " an unacceptable role model " and that his music promoted violence . Keef 's representatives then worked out an arrangement with promoters of the Craze Fest event , located in Hammond , Indiana , in an attempt to hold the concert there . Keef 's hologram was able to plea for peace in Chicago , stating , " Stop the violence , stop nonsense , stop the killing . Let the kids grow up , " before performing " I Don 't Like " . Fearing that the concert was a threat to public safety , Hammond mayor Thomas McDermott , Jr. successfully organized for the city 's police to shut down the generators powering Keef 's hologram . McDermott was quoted saying , " I know nothing about Chief Keef . All I ’ d heard was he has a lot of songs about gangs and shooting people — a history that ’ s anti @-@ cop , pro @-@ gang and pro @-@ drug use . He ’ s been basically outlawed in Chicago , and we ’ re not going to let you circumvent Mayor Emanuel by going next door . " Chicago Tribune columnist Eric Zorn criticized Emmanuel and Hammond for their decisions , claiming they infringed upon Keef 's First Amendment rights .
= = = Retirement ( 2016 @-@ present ) = = =
In March 2016 , Keef tweeted that he was retiring from rapping . He confirmed his retirement in response to a tweet asking if it were true . The announcement came as Keef 's recorded output was slowing down .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Glo Gang = = =
As part of his signing with Interscope Records , Keef 's label imprint , Glory Boyz Entertainment ( GBE ) , was established . Keef , along with his manager , Rovan Manuel , each owned 40 % shares of GBE . Keef 's cousin and fellow rapper , Fredo Santana , Keef 's uncle Alonzo Carter , and Anthony H. Dade , owned the remaining 20 % of GBE . Various associates of Keef 's would be signed with the label , such as rappers Lil Reese , Fredo Santana and producer Young Chop . The label had already been active since 2011 , however only released mixtapes and was not a full on record company . After releasing Keef 's Finally Rich in December 2012 , the label was set to release an album by Lil Reese in the coming months , along with various mixtapes . However , on January 3 , 2014 , Keef said that Glory Boyz Entertainment was " no more , " and was starting a new record label named Glo Gang . Prior to his death , Blood Money revealed in an interview the members of Glo Gang to be Keef , Tray Savage , Ballout , Capo , Tadoe , Justo , and himself .
= = Personal life = =
At the age of 16 , Keef had his first child , a daughter , born Kayden Kash Cozart and nicknamed Kay Kay . Keef was served with a request for child support by the child 's mother . In November 2013 , DNA documents revealed that Keef had fathered a 10 month old daughter , and was subsequently ordered to begin paying child support . In September 2014 , Keef announced the birth of his third child , and his first son , whom he named Krüe Karter Cozart . In May 2015 , Keef was sued by another woman , claiming that Keef is the father of her child . Due to never originally responding to the legal documents , Keef was ordered to court , with a warrant for his arrest placed as the consequence for his absence in court . Despite these issues , LA Weekly reported that , at least on Instagram , Keef , " appears to take fatherhood seriously . " In August 2015 , Keef caused controversy after naming his newborn son Sno " FilmOn Dot Com , " inspired by his current record label , FilmOn Music , to promote his album Bang 3 . Nevertheless , following a paternity dispute over the child , FilmOn Music retracted the name rights until the paternity is settled .
Two of Keef 's cousins , Fredo Santana and Tadoe , were signed to his Glory Boyz Entertainment label . Keef 's stepbrother was shot dead on January 2 , 2013 . Another of Keef 's cousin , Mario Hess , also known as Big Glo , who performed under the stage name Blood Money , was shot and killed in Chicago 's Englewood neighborhood on April 9 , 2014 . Hess had been signed to Interscope Records just two weeks prior to his killing . In an interview with Billboard , Keef explains how Big Glo 's death influences his life , " When that happened that was the biggest lesson . It told me ' You gotta grow up . ' "
After being evicted from his Highland Park home , Keef relocated to Los Angeles . In an interview with Noisey 's Rebecca Haithcoat , Keef told Haithcoat his favorite part about Los Angeles is , " the quiet . " After moving to Los Angeles , Keef began indulging in his new @-@ found hobby of art collecting , once he discovered the paintings of art teacher Bill da Butcher , while in rehab . Once acquainted , da Butcher began working on paintings personally meant for Keef . Keef believed that his move to Los Angeles benefited him ; in an interview with Billboard , Keef stated " I got away from all the unnecessary trouble . It 's better out here [ in L.A. ] than in Chicago , because I got in so much trouble . I like living out here . I think it improved me . It changed me , and [ inspired ] me to go somewhere bigger . "
= = = Legal issues = = =
On January 27 , 2011 , Keef was apprehended on charges of heroin manufacture and distribution . As a juvenile offender , Cozard was determined " delinquent " , rather than guilty of his charges , and served time on house arrest .
In December 2011 , Keef left his grandmother 's home holding a coat over his hands in front of his waistband . A policeman stopped to question the rapper , who dropped the coat , flashed a handgun and ran away . Officers chased then 16 @-@ year @-@ old Keef , who turned around several times and pointed the gun at them . The policemen " discharged their weapons , " but missed . They caught him a half @-@ block later and recovered the pistol , which was loaded . Keef was charged with three counts of aggravated assault with a firearm on a police officer and aggravated unlawful use of a weapon . He was also given a misdemeanor charge for resisting arrest . He was held in the Cook County Juvenile Detention Center until a judge sentenced him to home confinement at his grandmother ’ s house .
On September 5 , 2012 , Chicago Police stated that Keef was being investigated for a possible connection in the shooting death of fellow rapper and Englewood resident , Joseph Coleman , who performed under the stage name " Lil JoJo " . This came after Keef had mocked his death on Twitter , which he later claimed was the result of his account being hacked . Coleman 's mother has openly claimed that Chief Keef paid to have her son killed .
On October 17 , 2012 , Cook County prosecutors asked a judge to remand Keef to juvenile detention for alleged parole violations stemming from a video interview he held at a shooting range which included him discharging a firearm . A hearing was set for November 20 , 2012 , which was subsequently pushed back January 28 , 2013 , and then moved up to January 15 . The website that posted it , Pitchfork Media , was ordered by the court to provide the interview 's footage after they removed it three months prior . On December 31 , 2012 , Keef was issued a judicial summons for a new and unrelated alleged parole violation . Prosecutors claimed that he failed to notify his juvenile parole officer about a change of address . A hearing was set for January 2 , 2013 . Although prosecutors requested that he be jailed , Cook County judge Carl Anthony Walker allowed him to remain free , citing that he had not been presented " any credible evidence . "
On January 15 , 2013 , Keef was taken into custody after a juvenile court judge ruled that the aforementioned gun range interview video constituted a probation violation . Two days later , Keef was sentenced to two months in a juvenile detention facility and was additionally made a ward of the state . He completed serving the sentence on March 14 , 2013 .
On January 17 , 2013 , Keef was sued by Washington , D.C.-based promotion company Team Major for $ 75 @,@ 000 for a missed show . According to the firm , Keef was supposed to perform at the IndigO2 Arena in London on December 29 , 2012 but never showed . Neither Keef nor his label has given any kind of response as to why he missed the date . He ignored the lawsuit and the court sided with Team Major , ordering Keef to pay $ 230 @,@ 019 to Team Major by default .
On May 20 , 2013 , he was arrested in an upscale hotel in DeKalb County , Georgia for allegedly smoking marijuana in public and for disorderly conduct . He was released later in the day . Eight days later , Keef was arrested for driving 110 mph in a 55 mph zone in his hometown Chicago , and also for driving with an unlawful amount of passengers . He was later released on a bond . He returned to court on June 17 , and pleaded guilty to speeding . He was ordered to pay a $ 531 fine , serve 18 months of probation , complete 60 hours of community service and undergo random drug tests .
On October 15 , 2013 , Keef returned to jail for a 20 @-@ day sentence due to a probation violation after testing positive for marijuana . On October 24 , 2013 , Keef was released ten days early for good behavior . However , again on November 6 , 2013 , Keef was sent back to jail on another probation violation . Then following a stint in rehab , Keef was arrested on March 5 , 2014 in Highland Park , Illinois for DUI of marijuana , driving on a suspended license and cited for having no proof of insurance .
On February 4 , 2014 , Kim Productions filed suit against Keef to recover losses they allege they incurred after he failed to appear at a RapCure benefit concert in Cleveland , Ohio in June 2013 . The suit alleges that Kim Productions provided Keef with a $ 15 @,@ 000 deposit for the performance . Despite the advance , the lawsuit further alleges that as a result of Keef 's failure to appear , the concert had to be cancelled .
In June 2014 , Keef was evicted from his Highland Park home . Although Bal Bansal , the owner of the house , maintained Keef was a good tenant , and that his departure from the home was voluntary , police confirmed it was an eviction .
= = Image = =
Keef is often seen as a representation of the " Chiraq " gangsta rap culture that is present in Chicago . Additionally , Chief Keef is often referred to as " Sosa " by himself , his peers , and the media . The nickname , " Sosa " is a reference to the drug dealer " Sosa " from Scarface the movie . LA Weekly reported that Keef 's Glo Gang entourage respects the rapper . One member of the Glo Gang , Ballout , stated , " We learned all that from Sosa , we be in the studio with him so much , " calling him , " a rhyming machine . A music genius . Black Justin Bieber , if you ask me . " The New York Times stated that Chief Keef , " symbolizes , " Chicago 's drill music scene , and is the " best known of the young generation of Chicago rappers . " In November 2012 , Lucy Stehlik of The Guardian , described Keef as drill 's , " alpha male . " David Drake of Pitchfork Media writes , " Chief Keef is in rarefied air for street rap — a creative voice with an original , cohesive aesthetic , " adding , " to the grassroots , among a new generation of stars , he sits at street rap ’ s aesthetic center , not its margins . "
Keef has drawn comparisons to 50 Cent , as The New York Times writes , that like 50 Cent , Keef makes thuggery , " a major part of his early @-@ career persona . " Lupe Fiasco , who has been involved with a controversy with Keef , has been referred to as an " antagonist " to Keef 's more gangsta @-@ rap persona . The New York Times writes , " Lupe Fiasco is a stern and didactic teacher , but it ’ s arguable that Chief Keef ’ s music is far better at ringing warning bells . " Another rapper , Common , has praised Chief Keef 's contributions to rap , stating , " I think Chief Keef brought something that nobody else was doing and he brought it raw . He brought it real . With that , I have to respect that as an artist that he has come and brought that . " Other rappers , such as Rhymefest and Lupe Fiasco , however , have been critical of Chief ( see controversies section below ) .
= = = Controversies = = =
= = = = Hip hop feuds = = = =
In June 2012 , Chicago rapper Rhymefest authored a blog post critical of Keef 's image and message , describing the rapper as a " bomb " and a " spokesman for the Prison Industrial Complex " . The post was also critical of rappers Waka Flocka Flame and Rick Ross , citing similar reasons . Rhymefest reiterated these views in a subsequent interview with Salon .
In an August 2012 interview with Baltimore radio station 92Q Jams , Lupe Fiasco stated that Chief Keef " scares " him and went on to describe the other rapper as a " hoodlum " and representative of Chicago 's " skyrocketing " murder rate . A tweet from Keef 's account threatening Lupe Fiasco was posted on September 5 , but then Keef claimed that his account had been hacked and that the previous tweet was inauthentic . On September 13 , 2012 , Fiasco released a video interview in which he made amends to Keef .
In November 2014 , rap group Migos and Glo Gang member , Capo , were involved in a physical altercation in a Chicago restaurant . Later , Keef uploaded an image onto Instagram featuring the alleged stolen chain belonging to rapper Quavo of Migos . Though this incident escalated the already existing tension between members of Glo Gang and members of Migos , the feud between the two groups was later seemingly ended .
= = = = Instagram = = = =
On September 15 , 2012 , Keef uploaded an obscene photograph featuring the rapper receiving fellatio from a female fan onto the image sharing application Instagram . Keef shortly removed the image from his account . However , his account was subsequently banned for violating Instagram 's terms of service . Keef has since created another Instagram account , and has had his activities on the app mentioned by various outlets .
= = Discography = =
Albums :
Finally Rich ( 2012 )
Bang 3 ( 2015 )
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= Earth @-@ grazing meteoroid of 13 October 1990 =
The Earth @-@ grazing meteoroid EN131090 of 13 October 1990 was a meteoroid with an estimated mass of 44 kg that entered Earth 's atmosphere above Czechoslovakia and Poland and , after a few seconds , returned to space . Observations of such events are quite rare ; this was the second recorded using scientific astronomical instruments ( after the 1972 Great Daylight Fireball ) and the first recorded from two distant positions , which enabled the calculation of several of its orbital characteristics . The encounter with Earth significantly changed its orbit and , to a smaller extent , some of its physical properties ( mass and structure of its upper layer ) .
= = Observations = =
Visual observations were reported by three independent comet observers : Czech astronomers Petr Pravec , Pavel Klásek , and Lucie Bulíčková . According to their report , the event started at 03 : 27 : 16 ± 3 UT and the observed bright meteor ( fireball ) was moving from the south to the north . It left a track that was visible for 10 seconds .
Most data about the encounter was acquired using photographic observations by cameras of the European Fireball Network . It was the first event of this type recorded by cameras from two distant locations , at Červená hora and Svratouch ( both in what is now the Czech Republic ) , which enabled the calculation of the meteoroid 's orbital characteristics by geometrical methods . Both were equipped with all @-@ sky fisheye objectives .
The Červená hora image was especially valuable . It recorded the fireball 's trajectory over approximately 110 ° , starting 51 ° above the southern horizon , passing the zenith just 1 ° westward and disappearing only 19 ° above the northern horizon ( thus crossing about 60 % of the sky ) . Its camera was also equipped with a rotating shutter that interrupted the exposure 12 @.@ 5 times per second and divided the captured track of the fireball , allowing the determination of its speed . Over the last 4 ° , the fireball 's angular velocity was lower than the resolution of the instrument . The Svratouch image recorded the trajectory only for about 15 ° , beginning at 30 ° above the northwest horizon , and the pictured fireball was quite weak . Despite this , the data were sufficient for the calculations .
Gotfred M. Kristensen also detected the fireball in Havdrup , Denmark , using a pen recorder connected to a radio receiver for 78 seconds , at 03 : 27 : 24 ± 6 UT .
= = Encounter data = =
The meteoroid grazed Earth 's atmosphere quite gently ( in comparison to , for example , the 1972 Great Daylight Fireball above the United States and Canada ) . It became visible at a height of 103 @.@ 7 km north of Uherský Brod , Czechoslovakia , only approached Earth 's surface to 98 @.@ 67 km northeast of Wrocław , Poland , and disappeared from the sight of the cameras at a height of 100 @.@ 4 km north of Poznań , Poland . It would probably still have been visible until it reached a height of 110 km above the southern Baltic Sea .
The meteoroid 's absolute magnitude ( the apparent magnitude it would have at an altitude of 100 km at the observer 's zenith ) was approximately − 6 and did not vary significantly during the encounter . It travelled a distance of 409 km in 9 @.@ 8 seconds during the time it was observed . It was moving with a speed of 41 @.@ 74 km / s , which did not change during the flight . Jiří Borovička and Zdeněk Ceplecha from the Ondřejov Observatory in Czechoslovakia estimated that the deceleration caused by the friction of the atmosphere was only 1 @.@ 7 m / s2 near the fireball 's perigee ( closest approach to Earth ) , which meant that its velocity was reduced by only 0 @.@ 012 km / s . This corresponds well with computer simulations provided by D. W. Olson , R. L. Doescher and K. M. Watson at the Southwest Texas State University , who concluded that the meteoroid was practically not decelerated along its trajectory , with the exception of a very short time near perigee , when the deceleration was 1 m / s2 .
The software also calculated the fireball 's instantaneous apparent magnitude at the ground . The computation started and ended with heights of approximately 250 km , long before and after the cameras of the European Fireball Network could observe it . Its apparent magnitude started at a value of + 5 @.@ 7 and it became brighter quite quickly . The program gave an apparent magnitude of − 5 @.@ 7 when it was seen by one camera and − 6 @.@ 3 at perigee . The fireball subsequently dimmed , with an apparent magnitude of − 5 @.@ 4 when it was last seen by the cameras and a final calculated value of + 6 @.@ 0 at a height of 257 km . However , these values are not entirely certain , because the program worked with the simplified assumption that the luminous efficacy of the fireball did not change along the track . The starting apparent magnitude is not far from the naked eye visibility limits . For example , faint stars of the magnitude + 6 can can be observed only in dark rural areas approximately 150 km far from big cities . For comparison , this magnitude corresponds to the apparent magnitude of Uranus . At its brightest , it was several times as bright as the maximum brightness of Venus .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The meteoroid was a type I fireball , i.e. an ordinary chondrite . When it entered Earth 's atmosphere its mass was about 44 kg , which was estimated on the basis of the measured values of its absolute magnitude and velocity . It lost approximately 350 g during the encounter . Computer simulations showed that it started losing mass approximately at the moment it became visible to the cameras of the European Fireball Network , at a height of 100 @.@ 6 km . It lost mass for 25 seconds , until it reached a height of 215 @.@ 7 km . Its surface melted and solidified again after leaving , which means its surface became a typical meteoritic fusion crust .
The meteoroid was not dangerous to the life on Earth . Even if it had headed towards lower parts of the atmosphere it would have heated so much that it would have exploded high above the ground and only some small particles ( meteorites ) eventually might have made it to Earth 's surface .
= = Orbit = =
Because the fireball was recorded by two cameras of the European Fireball Network , it was possible to calculate the trajectory of its flight through the atmosphere , and afterward also the characteristics of both its pre- and post @-@ encounter orbit in the Solar System . The calculations were published by Czech astromers Pavel Spurný , Zdeněk Ceplecha , and Jiří Borovička from Ondřejov Observatory , who specialize in meteor observations . They proved that the encounter changed the meteoroid 's orbit significantly . For example , its aphelion ( the farthest it travels from the Sun ) and orbital period were lowered to almost half of their original values .
= = Similar events = =
Although entries of meteoroids into Earth 's atmosphere are very common , recording a similar flight through the upper layers of the atmosphere is quite rare . Probably the first one reliably verified happened on 20 July 1860 above the American state of New York . The Czechoslovak – Polish fireball is sometimes compared to the 1972 Great Daylight Fireball above Utah , the United States , and Alberta , Canada , which is the first scientifically observed and studied event of this type . The 1972 fireball was more than a thousand times more massive and it got 40 km closer to Earth 's surface . Observational data from both of them helped to develop a method for computing the grazing trajectories of such bodies , which was later used when calculating the trajectory of another Earth @-@ grazing meteoroid , observed on 29 March 2006 above Japan .
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= 2011 White House shooting =
The 2011 White House shooting occurred on November 11 , 2011 , when Oscar Ramiro Ortega @-@ Hernandez , an unemployed 21 @-@ year @-@ old man who was obsessed with U.S. President Barack Obama , fired a semi @-@ automatic rifle at the White House , the official residence of the U.S. Presidency in Washington , D.C. At least seven bullets hit the second floor . Neither the president nor First Lady Michelle Obama were home at the time , although their younger daughter , Sasha , and the first lady 's mother , Marian Shields Robinson , were . No one was injured . It took four days for the Secret Service to realize that bullets had struck the White House . Michelle Obama learned of the shooting from an usher , then summoned Mark J. Sullivan , director of the Secret Service , to find out why the first family had not been informed .
In September 2013 , Ortega @-@ Hernandez pleaded guilty to one count of property destruction and one count of discharging a firearm during a crime of violence , thereby avoiding the charge of attempting to assassinate the President . In March 2014 , he was sentenced to 25 years ' imprisonment . In September 2014 , The Washington Post published an investigative report detailing errors that the Secret Service made on the night of the shooting that led to the crime going undiscovered . A House of Representatives hearing followed and Julia Pierson , director of the Secret Service , resigned the following week . It was the first shooting at the White House since Francisco Martin Duran 's attempted assassination of President Bill Clinton in 1994 .
= = Background = =
Oscar Ramiro Ortega @-@ Hernandez , an unemployed 21 @-@ year @-@ old man , left his home in Idaho Falls , Idaho on October 23 , three weeks prior to the shooting . He told his friends and family that he was going to Utah for a business trip ; his family reported him missing on October 31 after he failed to return . According to friends , Ortega @-@ Hernandez had become increasingly paranoid before leaving , saying that the United States government was controlling citizens and that President Barack Obama " had to be stopped " . The mother of Ortega @-@ Hernandez 's former fiancée stated that he had been well @-@ mannered for the four years she had known him , but had recently started making bizarre statements . On July 8 , he had told an acquaintance that Obama was planning to put GPS tracking devices into children and that the world would end in 2012 . In September , he made a video for Oprah Winfrey , explaining that he was Jesus and asking to appear on her television show . On his 21st birthday in October , he made a 45 @-@ minute speech on various topics including a warning of the dangers of secret societies . Ortega @-@ Hernandez had a 2 @-@ year @-@ old son with his former fiancée ; it is unknown when or why they separated .
Ortega @-@ Hernandez arrived in Washington on November 9 with 180 rounds of ammunition and a Romanian @-@ made Cugir semiautomatic rifle that he had purchased from a gun shop in Idaho . On the morning of the shooting , he was reported for suspicious behavior in a local park . Police questioned him , but he refused to let police search his car . After photographing him , police officers let him go as they had no cause to make an arrest .
= = Shooting and response = =
On November 11 , Ortega @-@ Hernandez parked his vehicle on Constitution Avenue , 750 yards ( 690 m ) directly south of the White House . He aimed his semi @-@ automatic rifle from the car 's passenger seat and fired . Gunfire was reported around 9 pm . One bullet hit an antique window on the White House 's second floor near the first family 's formal living room ; however , it did not penetrate the bulletproof glass on the inside . One bullet lodged in a window frame , and others ricocheted off the roof , causing small pieces of wood and concrete to fall to the ground . At least seven bullets struck the second floor , causing $ 97 @,@ 000 worth of damage . A woman in a taxi nearby witnessed the shooting and wrote on Twitter , " Driver in front of my cab STOPPED and fired 5 gun shots at the White House . It took the police a while to respond . " President Obama , his wife Michelle , and their oldest daughter Malia were not home at the time of the shooting , although their younger daughter Sasha and Michelle 's mother Marian Shields Robinson were . When the shooting occurred , Malia was coming home and was expected to arrive at any moment .
Secret Service agents initially rushed to respond . Snipers scanned the South Lawn , looking for an assailant . A supervisor then decided that the noises were backfires from a nearby construction site and told the agents , " No shots have been fired ... stand down " , to the surprise of several officers . According to Carol D. Leonnig , agents who thought the building had been fired upon " were largely ignored " , with one reporting she had been afraid to doubt her superior 's assertion . By the end of the night , it was confirmed that a shooting had occurred , although the Secret Service believed that gunfire was not aimed at the White House , but rather was the result of a gang fight nearby . A Secret Service dispatcher called emergency services and gave incorrect descriptions of both vehicles and suspects ; police were told to look for two black men on Rock Creek Parkway . It took four days for the Secret Service to realize that bullets had struck the White House . The evidence was only noticed when a housekeeper discovered broken glass and pieces of cement on the Truman Balcony around midday on November 15 .
President Obama was visiting Australia and Indonesia when the discovery was made . Michelle Obama had returned to the White House on the morning of November 15 , going to sleep shortly after arriving . An usher went to check on her later that day and began talking about the shooting , assuming she already knew about the incident . According to Leonnig , the first lady was " furious " , wondering why the director of the Secret Service , Mark J. Sullivan , who had accompanied her on her flight back to Washington , had not told her about it . Leonnig also stated that Sullivan was subsequently summoned to a meeting with the first lady , during which she raised her voice so loudly she could be heard through the closed door . Sullivan disputes this report , though he declined to give any details regarding the conversation . A detailed inspection of the White House for evidence or damage and interviews with key witnesses began later that afternoon . Leonnig also stated that president Obama was angered over the flawed response and the failure to notify the first lady . According to one presidential aide , " the shit really hit the fan " when Obama returned from his travels five days later .
Three years later , in September 2014 , Carol D. Leonnig from the The Washington Post released an investigative report describing the details of the Secret Service 's " bungled " response following the shooting . The Secret Service responded to the criticism , stating that the shots were fired from a quarter @-@ mile away , resulting in echoes obfuscating their origin , and that initial witness accounts stated that the shots were fired at another vehicle from a black vehicle . An agent who asked to remain anonymous stated , " I 'm not saying this was our shining moment , but we never stopped looking for [ the gunman ] . " A former agent stated that the Secret Service needed to change its ways in order to prevent " complacency " and stop future attacks . As a direct result of the attack , additional security measures , such as personnel changes and physical improvements including additional surveillance cameras , were implemented at the White House . It was the first shooting at the White House since Francisco Martin Duran 's fired shots at President Bill Clinton from the fence overlooking the north lawn on October 29 , 1994 .
A week after The Washington Post released their report , Julia Pierson , who took over as director of the Secret Service from Sullivan in March 2013 , testified at a United States House of Representatives hearing regarding security breaches at the White House . Pierson was criticised by Committee Chairman Darrell Issa regarding several security breaches . Issa stated , " The fact is , the system broke down ... when Oscar Ortega @-@ Hernandez successfully shot at the White House on November 2011 . " Upon hearing that an agent was unwilling to doubt her superior 's assertion , Representative Elijah Cummings stated to Pierson that it was " very disturbing to know that Secret Service agents in the most protective agency in the world feel more comfortable ... coming to members of this committee and telling things than coming to you and members in the agency . " Pierson acknowledged that the incident was " extremely " troubling . As a result of the 2011 shooting and other controversies , Pierson resigned from her position on October 1 , 2014 .
= = Arrest and trial = =
Leonnig described Ortega @-@ Hernandez 's arrest as " sheer luck " . He crashed a black 1998 Honda Accord , registered in his name , several blocks from the White House shortly after the shooting . He abandoned his vehicle with his firearm still inside , along with three loaded magazines , nine spent shell casings , and brass knuckles . On November 13 , the United States Park Police obtained a warrant for Ortega @-@ Hernandez 's arrest based on weapons charges regarding his abandoned rifle , although he was still not suspected of shooting at the White House . Around the same time , Secret Service agents learned from his friends and family that he was obsessed with President Obama , and the agents began canvassing Washington in an attempt to find him . When the damage to the White House was discovered on November 15 , Ortega @-@ Hernandez became the prime suspect for the shooting . On November 16 , he was arrested in a hotel in Indiana , Pennsylvania , after an employee there recognized him and contacted police .
Federal prosecutors launched an investigation to determine if he had acted out of hatred for Obama . Writings by Ortega @-@ Hernandez and testimonies from those who knew him revealed that he believed that he was Jesus , and that President Obama was the Antichrist and the Devil . Ortega @-@ Hernandez was not found to be affiliated with any extremist groups . In September 2013 , Ortega @-@ Hernandez pleaded guilty to two of the nineteen charges against him : one count of destruction of property and one count of discharging a firearm during a crime of violence . As part of his plea bargain , the remaining charges were dropped , including the charge of attempting to assassinate the President , which carried a maximum penalty of life imprisonment . On March 31 , 2014 , Ortega @-@ Hernandez was sentenced to 25 years imprisonment by Judge Rosemary M. Collyer . His lawyers had asked for a 10 @-@ year sentence , stating Ortega @-@ Hernandez was suffering from depression and stress . Prosecutors had asked for the maximum sentence of 27 ½ years . He is serving his sentence at United States Penitentiary , Beaumont , with a release date of October 24 , 2033 .
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= London Bridge Is Falling Down =
" London Bridge Is Falling Down " ( also known as " My Fair Lady " or " London Bridge " ) is a traditional English nursery rhyme and singing game , which is found in different versions all over the world . It deals with the depredations of London Bridge and attempts , realistic or fanciful , to repair it . It may date back to bridge rhymes and games of the late Middle Ages , but the earliest records of the rhyme in English are from the seventeenth century . The lyrics were first printed in close to their modern form in the mid @-@ eighteenth century and became popular , particularly in Britain and the United States in the nineteenth century .
The modern melody was first recorded in the late nineteenth century and the game resembles arch games of the Middle Ages , but seems to have taken its modern form in the late nineteenth century . It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 502 . Several theories have been advanced to explain the meaning of the rhyme and the identity of the " fair lady " of the refrain . The rhyme is one of the most well known in the world and has been referenced in a variety of works of literature and popular culture .
= = Lyrics = =
There is considerable variation in the lyrics of the rhyme . The most frequently used first verse is :
In the version quoted by Iona and Peter Opie in 1951 the full lyrics were :
The rhyme is constructed of quatrains in trochaic tetrameter catalectic , ( each line made up of four metrical feet of two syllables , with the stress falling on the first syllable in a pair ; the last foot in the line missing the unstressed syllable ) , which is common in nursery rhymes . In its most common form it relies on a double repetition , rather than a rhyming scheme , which is a frequently employed device in children 's rhymes and stories . The Roud Folk Song Index , which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , classifies the song as 502 .
= = Melody = =
A melody is recorded for " London Bridge " in an edition of John Playford 's The Dancing Master published in 1718 , but it differs from the modern tune and no lyrics were given . An issue of Blackwood 's Magazine in 1821 noted the rhyme as a being sung to the tune of " Nancy Dawson " , now better known as " Nuts in May " and the same tune was given in Richard Thomson 's Chronicles of London Bridge ( 1827 ) .
Another tune was recorded in Samuel Arnold 's Juvenile Amusements in 1797 . E. F. Rimbault 's Nursery Rhymes ( 1836 ) has the same first line , but then a different tune . The tune now associated with the rhyme was first recorded in 1879 in the US in A. H. Rosewig 's Illustrated National Songs and Games .
= = The game = =
The rhyme is often used in a children 's singing game , which exists in a wide variety of forms , with additional verses . Most versions are similar to the actions used in the rhyme " Oranges and Lemons " . The most common is that two players hold hands and make an arch with their arms while the others pass through in single file . The " arch " is then lowered at the song 's end to " catch " a player . In the United States it is common for two teams of those that have been caught to engage in a tug of war . In England until the nineteenth century the song may have been accompanied by a circle dance , but arch games are known to have been common across late medieval Europe .
Five of nine versions published by Alice Gomme in 1894 included references to a prisoner who has stolen a watch and chain . This may be a late nineteenth century addition from another game called " Hark the Robbers " , or " Watch and Chain " . This rhyme is sung to the same tune and may be an offshoot of " London Bridge " or the remnant of a distinct game . In one version the first two verses have the lyrics :
= = Origins = =
Similar rhymes can be found across Europe , pre @-@ dating the records in England . These include " Knippelsbro Går Op og Ned " from Denmark , " Die Magdeburger Brück " from Germany , " pont chus " from sixteenth @-@ century France ; and " Le porte " , from fourteenth @-@ century Italy . It is possible that the rhyme was acquired from one of these sources and then adapted to fit the most famous bridge in England .
One of the earliest references to the rhyme in English is in the comedy The London Chaunticleres , printed in 1657 , but probably written about 1636 , in which the dairy woman Curds states that she had " danced the building of London @-@ Bridge " at the Whitsun Ales in her youth , although no words or actions are mentioned . Widespread familiarity with the rhyme is suggested by its use by Henry Carey in his satire Namby Pamby ( 1725 ) , as :
The oldest extant version could be that recalled by a correspondent to the Gentleman 's Magazine in 1823 , which he claimed to have heard from a woman who was a child in the reign of Charles II ( r . 1660 – 85 ) and had the lyrics :
The subsequent verses followed this form , each repeating in the lines below in place of " London bridge is broken down " :
The earliest printed English version is in the oldest extant collection of nursery rhymes , Tommy Thumb 's Pretty Song Book , printed by John Newbery in London ( c . 1744 ) , with the following text :
A version from James Ritson 's Gammer Gurton 's Garland ( 1784 ) is similar but replaces the last verse with :
= = Meaning = =
The meaning of the rhyme is not certain . It may simply relate to the many difficulties experienced in bridging the River Thames , but a number of alternative theories have been put forward .
= = = Viking attack theory = = =
One theory of origin is that the rhyme relates to the supposed destruction of London Bridge by Olaf II of Norway in 1014 ( or 1009 ) . The nineteenth @-@ century translation of the Norse saga the Heimskringla , published by Samuel Laing in 1844 , included a verse by Óttarr svarti , that looks very similar to the nursery rhyme :
However , modern translations make it clear that Laing was using the nursery rhyme as a model for his very free translation , and the reference to London Bridge does not appear at the start of the verse and it is unlikely that this is an earlier version of the nursery rhyme . Some historians doubt that the attack ever took place .
= = = Child sacrifice theory = = =
The theory that the song refers to the burying , perhaps alive , of children in the foundations of the bridge was first advanced by Alice Bertha Gomme ( later Lady Gomme ) in The Traditional Games of England , Scotland and Ireland ( 1894 – 1898 ) and perpetuated by the usually sceptical Iona and Peter Opie . This was based around the idea that a bridge would collapse unless the body of a human sacrifice were buried in its foundations and that the watchman is actually a human sacrifice , who will then watch over the bridge . However , there is no archaeological evidence for any human remains in the foundations of London Bridge .
= = = Age and damage theory = = =
Until the mid @-@ eighteenth century the Old London Bridge was the only crossing on the Thames in London . It was damaged in a major fire in 1633 , but in the fire of 1666 this damage acted as a fire break and prevented the flames from further damaging the bridge and crossing to the south side of the Thames . With its 19 narrow arches , it impeded river traffic and flow . Central piers were removed to create a wider navigational span . Widening and the removal of its houses was completed in 1763 , but it remained relatively narrow and needed continual and expensive repairs . In the early nineteenth century it was decided to replace the bridge with a new construction . New London Bridge was opened in 1831 and survived until it was replaced in 1972 . It was then transported and reconstructed in Lake Havasu City , Arizona .
= = = " Fair lady " identity = = =
Several attempts have been made to identify the ' fair lady ' , ' lady gay ' , or lady ' lee / lea ' of the rhyme . They include :
Matilda of Scotland ( c . 1080 – 1118 ) Henry I 's consort , who between 1110 and 1118 was responsible for the building of the series of bridges that carried the London @-@ Colchester road across the River Lea and its side streams between Bow and Stratford .
Eleanor of Provence ( c . 1223 – 91 ) , consort of Henry III who had custody of the bridge revenues from 1269 to about 1281 .
A member of the Leigh family of Stoneleigh Park , Warwickshire , who have a family story that a human sacrifice lies under the building .
The River Lea , which is a tributary of the Thames .
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= Rain ( Beatles song ) =
" Rain " is a song by the English rock band the Beatles first released in June 1966 as the B @-@ side of the " Paperback Writer " single . Both songs were recorded during the sessions for the album Revolver though neither appears on that album .
Written by John Lennon although credited to Lennon – McCartney , " Rain " has been called the Beatles ' finest B @-@ side , noted for its slowed @-@ down rhythm track and backwards vocals , both of which were a hint of things to come on Revolver , released two months later .
Three promotional films were made for the song " Rain " . These videos , along with other Beatles videos at the time , sparked George Harrison to say during the Beatles Anthology , " So I suppose , in a way , we invented MTV . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The inspiration for " Rain " is agreed on by Neil Aspinall , the Beatles ' roadie , and John Lennon . They both described the band 's arrival in Melbourne , Australia , marked by rain and poor weather . Lennon said , " I 've never seen rain as hard as that , except in Tahiti " , and later explained that " Rain " was " about people moaning about the weather all the time " . Another interpretation is that the song 's " rain " and " sun " are phenomena experienced during a benign LSD trip .
While technologically elaborate , " Rain " has a simple musical structure . Set in the key of G major ( the final mix pitches it about a quarter of a semitone below this , while the backing track was taped in G sharp ) , it begins with what Alan W. Pollack calls , " a ra @-@ ta @-@ tat half @-@ measure 's fanfare of solo snare drums " , followed by a guitar intro of the first chord . The verses are nine measures long , and the song is in 4 / 4 time . Each verse is based on the G , C , and D chords ( I , IV , and V ) . The refrain contains only I and IV chords , and is twelve measures long ( the repetition of a six @-@ measure pattern ) . The first two measures are the G chord . The third and fourth measures are the C chord . The third measure has the C chord in the so @-@ called 6 / 4 ( second ) inversion . The fifth and sixth measures return to the G chord . Pollack says the refrain seems slower than the verse , though it is at the same tempo , an illusion achieved by " the change of beat for the first four measures from its erstwhile bounce to something more plodding and regular " . After four verses and two refrains , a short solo for guitar and drums is played , with complete silence for one beat . What is heard next is what Pollack calls " historically significant " reverse lyrics . The Beatles pioneered the fade @-@ out fade @-@ in coda that was later used on " Strawberry Fields Forever " which can also be heard on Led Zeppelin 's " Thank You " .
= = Recording = =
Recording began on 14 April 1966 , in the same session as " Paperback Writer " , and concluded on 16 April , with a series of overdubs before mixing on the same day . At that time , The Beatles were enthusiastic about experimenting in the studio to achieve new sounds and effects . These experiments were showcased in their seventh album , Revolver . Geoff Emerick , who was the engineer for both sessions , described one technique he used to alter the sonic texture of the track by recording the backing track " faster than normal . " When played back , slightly slower than the usual speed , " the music had a radically different tonal quality . The opposite technique was used to alter the tone of Lennon 's lead vocal : it was recorded with the tape machine slowed down , making Lennon 's voice sound higher when played back .
The last verse of " Rain " includes backwards vocals , one of the first uses of this technique on a record . The backwards vocals are Lennon singing the lyrics of the song : " When the sun shines , " " Rain , " and " If the rain comes , they run and hide their heads . " Both Lennon and producer George Martin have claimed credit for the idea ; Lennon said :
Emerick confirms Lennon 's creative accident , but Martin remembers it differently :
Later , in 1980 , John claimed :
Regardless of who is credited for the technique , " from that point on , " Emerick wrote , " almost every overdub we did on Revolver had to be tried backwards as well as forwards . "
The " Paperback Writer " / " Rain " single was the first release to use a new device invented by the maintenance department at Abbey Road called " ATOC " for " Automatic Transient Overload Control " . The new device allowed the record to be cut at a louder volume , louder than any other single up to that time . On the final mix of the single , Lennon played a 1965 Gretsch Nashville , Paul McCartney a 1964 Rickenbacker 4001S bass , Harrison a 1964 Gibson SG , and Ringo Starr used Ludwig drums . Both McCartney and Starr have been praised for their performances on their instruments in this song . Starr particularly liked his drumming effort .
= = Personnel = =
John Lennon – lead and backing vocals , rhythm guitar
Paul McCartney – backing vocals , bass
George Harrison – backing vocals , lead guitar
Ringo Starr – drums , tambourine
Personnel per Ian MacDonald
= = Release = =
First released as a B @-@ side to " Paperback Writer " in the United States ( Capitol 5651 ) on 30 May 1966 and in the UK on 10 June 1966 ( Parlophone R5452 ) , the single was later released part of a Record Store Day reissue in 2010 . It later appeared on the compilations Hey Jude in the US and Rarities in the UK . It also appeared on the Past Masters CD ( Parlophone CDP 7 90044 2 ) .
= = Promotional films = =
The Beatles created three promotional films for " Rain " which are considered among the early precursors of music videos . The films were directed by Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg who worked with them earlier on the pop 1960 television programme Ready Steady Go ! One features the Beatles walking and singing in a garden and a greenhouse ( filmed 20 May 1966 at Chiswick House in London ) . The other two feature the band performing on a sound stage ( filmed 19 May 1966 , one in colour for Ed Sullivan and the other in black and white for the UK ) . McCartney was injured in a moped accident on 26 December 1965 , six months prior to the filming of " Rain " and closeups in the film reveal a scarred lip and a chipped tooth . McCartney 's appearance in the film played a role in the " Paul is dead " rumours from 1969 .
The Beatles ' Anthology documentary video includes a re @-@ edit of two of these three clips , full of rhythmic fast cuts and several shots that went unused in the original videos . This creates an impression that the videos were more technically complex , fast @-@ paced , and innovative than was the case . For example , the backwards film effects shown here are 1990s creations . Such effects were actually first deployed in the " Strawberry Fields Forever " promotional film of January 1967 .
= = Reception = =
The song 's highest chart position in the US was number 23 ( 11 June 1966 ) . The " Paperback Writer " single reached number one in the UK ( for two weeks starting on 23 June 1966 ) . " Rain " is one of the Beatles ' most critically acclaimed songs , appearing on best @-@ of lists , including Rolling Stone magazine 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ( # 463 ) . AcclaimedMusic.net , ranks " Rain " at # 1066 on the Top 3000 Songs , the 31st highest @-@ rated Beatle song on the site . The song was ranked as the 382nd best song of all time by Q104.3
Notable in " Rain " is Ringo Starr 's drumming , which Starr rates as his best recorded performance . Critics agreed : both Ian MacDonald and Rolling Stone said his drumming was " superb " and Richie Unterberger of AllMusic praised his " creative drum breaks " . In 1984 , Starr assessed his performance stating , " I think it 's the best out of all the records I 've ever made . ' Rain ' blows me away ... I know me and I know my playing ... and then there 's ' Rain ' " .
= = Covers , samples , and media references = =
" Rain " cover versions include Petula Clark , Ibex , Bongwater , Humble Pie , The Jam , The Clash , Shonen Knife , The Punkles , Galaxie 500 , Hard Meat , Polyrock , Gregg Allman , Antietam and Wang Chung . The Grateful Dead performed the song throughout the 1990s , often as an encore . U2 has played the song in whole or in part throughout many of their tours , usually during outdoor concerts when it has started to rain . Pearl Jam improvised the song into their song " Jeremy " during their 1992 Pinkpop Festival show and played it in full at the Isle of Wight Festival in 2012 . Kula Shaker covered the song live at Reading Festival in 1996 as did Fairport Convention , featuring Dan Ar Braz , at the Cropredy Festival in 1997 . Todd Rundgren has also covered the song , as has the late Dan Fogelberg , who reprised it as part of his own cover of " Rhythm of the Rain " .
The Beatles tribute act Rain derives its name from the song .
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= 1909 Greater Antilles hurricane =
The 1909 Greater Antilles hurricane was a rare , late @-@ season tropical cyclone that caused extensive damage and loss of life in Jamaica and Haiti . Forming out of a large disturbance in early November , the hurricane began as a minimal tropical storm over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 8 . Slowly tracking northwestward , the system gradually intensified . Late on November 11 , the storm brushed the eastern tip of Jamaica before attaining hurricane status . The following afternoon , the storm made landfall in northwest Haiti with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . After moving over the Atlantic Ocean , the hurricane further intensified and attained its peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on November 13 . The system rapidly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the following day before being absorbed by a frontal system northeast of the Lesser Antilles .
Including rainfall from the precursor to the hurricane , rainfall in Jamaica peaked at 114 @.@ 50 in ( 2 @,@ 908 mm ) Silver Hill Plantation . These extreme rains led to widespread flooding that killed 30 people and left $ 7 million in damage throughout the country . The worst damage in Haiti was caused rains exceeding 24 in ( 610 mm ) that led to catastrophic flooding . At least 166 people are known to have been killed in the country ; however , reports indicate that hundreds likely died during the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the 1909 Greater Antilles hurricane are unclear , but are believed to have begun with a large , slow @-@ moving storm system near Jamaica in early November . By November 8 , it was classified as a tropical storm and was situated over the southwestern Caribbean Sea , north of Panama . A ship in the vicinity of the system recorded an atmospheric pressure of 1004 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) . Slowly moving northeastward , an unusual direction for a Caribbean cyclone , the storm gradually intensified . The forward motion of the system steadily increased on November 10 as it headed towards Jamaica . Late on November 11 , the system brushed the eastern tip of Jamaica as a strong tropical storm , with maximum winds estimated at 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Several hours later , the storm intensified into what would now be classified a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . During the afternoon of November 12 , the hurricane made landfall in northern Haiti , in the Nord @-@ Ouest Department , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . After briefly moving over land , the storm entered the Atlantic Ocean and turned east @-@ northeast and further accelerated .
Early on November 13 , the hurricane further intensified to the equivalent of a Category 2 system and attained peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . No barometric pressure was recorded at the time of peak intensity since it occurred over water and away from any ships . In an initial analysis of the storm made by meteorologist José Fernández Partagás in 1999 , he wrote that at the storm 's peak , it was a strong tropical storm , not a hurricane . In a report , it was stated that " It was a difficult case for the author [ Partagás ] to decide whether or not to upgrade to a hurricane " . It was not until the Atlantic hurricane database re @-@ analysis reached 1909 in February 2004 that the storm was designated as a hurricane . By November 14 , the storm began to weaken as it turned nearly due east . Later that day , it quickly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before being absorbed by a frontal system northeast of the Lesser Antilles .
= = Impact = =
Prior to becoming a tropical storm , the precursor low had been producing heavy rainfall across Jamaica since November 5 . Further rains fell as the system intensified and neared the country . Between November 5 and 11 , the system produced 30 @.@ 45 in ( 773 mm ) of rain in Kingston . More extreme rains fell upon the Silver Hill Plantation , where 114 @.@ 50 inches ( 2 @,@ 908 mm ) of rain accumulated in the five @-@ day period of November 5 – 9 , with eight @-@ day totals from November 4 – 11 reaching 135 @.@ 00 inches ( 3 @,@ 429 mm ) . This rainfall triggered severe flooding . Roughly 500 @,@ 000 banana plants were lost as a result of the floods , about 20 % of the entire country 's yield . Around Kingston , the waterworks was destroyed and several tunnels and railways were blocked by landslides . Many bridges and roads were also damaged or destroyed . This led to many towns being isolated and hampered rescue efforts . Flood waters in the town of Annott Bay reached 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) . Throughout Jamaica , the flooding killed 30 people and damage was estimated at $ 7 million ( 1909 USD ) . Following the severe flooding , the Jamaican government allocated about $ 150 @,@ 000 in funds for damage repair .
In nearby Haiti , the damage from the hurricane was catastrophic as torrential rains , reported to have exceeded 24 in ( 610 mm ) , triggered widespread flooding and landslides throughout the country . Initial reports from Haiti were slow to reach the news media as most roads were flooded or destroyed . Several days after the hurricane 's passage , reports began to indicate that immense damage had taken place due to the storm . The city of Gonaïves was completely flooded after a nearby river overflowed its banks . Residents sought safety from the flood waters in the upper floors and roofs of their homes . Sixteen people were killed in the city after a bridge was destroyed by the swollen river . The Tonazeau River near Port @-@ au @-@ Prince also topped its banks , inundating nearby areas .
Along the Yaqui River , unprecedented flooding led to the creation of a large lake , estimated to be 30 mi ( 48 km ) long and up to 80 ft ( 24 m ) deep . Many villages were destroyed by the floods , with hundreds of fatalities expected to result from the storm . Monetary losses for Haiti following the disaster are scarce , with the only known damage estimate being $ 3 million . However , the true damage cost from the hurricane is likely much higher . At least 166 fatalities are known as a result of the storm in Haiti ; however , many reports state that several hundred people likely perished during the storm . Most of the fatalities took place in the Nord @-@ Ouest Department where 150 victims were identified .
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= Holy Rosary Cathedral ( Vancouver ) =
The Metropolitan Cathedral of Our Lady of the Holy Rosary , commonly known as Holy Rosary Cathedral , is a late 19th @-@ century French Gothic revival church that serves as the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vancouver . It is located in the downtown area of the city at the intersection of Richards and Dunsmuir streets .
The construction of the cathedral began in 1899 on the site of an earlier church by the same name . It opened on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on December 8 , 1900 , was blessed the day after , and was consecrated in 1953 . The style has been described as resembling the medieval Chartres Cathedral in France . The church was elevated to the status of cathedral in 1916 . It is listed on the Vancouver Heritage Register and is a legally protected building .
= = History = =
= = = Original structure ( 1887 – 1899 ) = = =
The parish was established in June 1885 and Father Patrick Fay , the chaplain to Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) workers , was chosen as pastor . He officiated the first mass of the parish on the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary in the same year at an unknown location . Although masses were held in Blair ’ s Hall and Keefer ’ s Hall , it became apparent that a new and permanent church was necessary to cope with the growing number of parishioners , which consisted of 69 families .
In order to pick a site for the new church , legend has it that Father Fay went to the Coal Harbour waterfront , looked south towards the forested land ( present @-@ day Downtown Vancouver ) and chose the area that contained the tallest tree . Construction began in 1886 and the wooden church was completed and blessed in the following year . Two years later , the church was enlarged and a bell tower was added .
= = = Present @-@ day cathedral = = =
With the rapid growth of Vancouver at the time , plans were made for a greater expansion of the church . Because Fay was transferred in 1892 and died shortly after , Father Eumellin succeeded him in overseeing the plan for construction from 1893 to 1897 . Then , the new pastor of the church , Father James McGuckin , took over the project . By that time , the number of parishioners had outgrown the size of the church building . In order to fund the construction of the new church , the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate ( OMI ) – the religious order McGuckin belonged to – mortgaged their headquarters in France , and before his death , Fay worked as a CPR foreman for a construction crew . Initially , parishioners and the OMI were skeptical of the project ; the parish was already heavily in debt when McGuckin became pastor , the Catholic community in Vancouver – though " rapidly growing " – was still " relatively small " in number , and a friend of McGuckin who was a contractor was unable to provide the funds he had initially pledged . These problems culminated in the construction project being labelled " McGuckin 's Folly " .
Despite these doubts , the cornerstone of the new church was laid on July 16 , 1899 , by Archbishop Adélard Langevin of Saint Boniface . Thomas Ennor Julian and H.J. Williams were hired to be the architects , and in just 491 days , the construction was completed . At the time it was finished , the building was praised as " the finest piece of architecture west of Toronto and north of San Francisco . " The new Church of Our Lady of the Holy Rosary opened on December 8 , 1900 – the Feast of the Immaculate Conception – and was blessed one day later by Archbishop Alexander Christie of Portland , Oregon . By the end of the decade , it became " the most financially important parish " in the archdiocese , since it was the only church that not only could break @-@ even , but could also churn out a surplus . Because of this , Archbishop Timothy Casey wanted to make the church the cathedral for the metropolitan see . The OMI were extremely reluctant to give up their church , and even attempted to give Casey money so that he could buy land elsewhere to build a new cathedral . Nonetheless , the church was elevated to the status of cathedral in 1916 , but the Oblates were permitted to remain . The OMI – which administered the parish since 1893 – eventually left in 1927 after difficulties arose from the mortgage agreement that had helped pay for the construction of the cathedral . This was coupled with the " growing manpower shortage " caused by a declining number of members joining the order .
Since a Catholic church can only be consecrated once it has become free from debt , the cathedral did not have its rite of consecration held until October 3 , 1953 , fifty @-@ three years after it first opened . The ceremony – which commenced just after daybreak – was officiated by the Archbishop of Vancouver William M. Duke , with the subsequent solemn pontifical Mass celebrated by Michael Harrington , the Bishop of Kamloops . Approximately thirty @-@ five bishops from across Canada and the United States attended the event , which coincided with Duke 's golden and silver jubilees of his priestly ordination and consecration as a bishop , respectively .
On October 7 , 1952 , the feast day of the cathedral 's namesake , a gunman entered the church and fired a round from his rifle at the altar . No one was hurt and he was arrested shortly after . A minor tilt in the bell tower of the cathedral was detected in April 1959 , probably due to the drilling and blasting of a nearby tunnel .
Many significant events have taken place at the cathedral . In 1936 , it hosted an archdiocesan @-@ level Eucharistic Congress , the first congress ever to be celebrated in Western Canada . Forty @-@ eight years later , in 1984 , Pope John Paul II visited the church as part of his pastoral visit to Canada . In late September 2001 , the cathedral became the first place in Canada to host the relics of Saint Thérèse of Lisieux during her reliquary 's three @-@ month @-@ long tour of the country .
Over the years , several notable people had their funeral requiem mass said at the cathedral , including beloved local lifeguard and swim instructor Joe Fortes ( 1922 ) , Chief Dan George of the Tsleil @-@ Waututh Nation ( 1981 ) , and former Vancouver police commissioner William Cameron Murphy in 1961 . The funeral of Fortes in February 1922 saw the cathedral filled to capacity , with thousands of others braving the rain and cold weather to view the funeral procession on the streets of Vancouver . Requiem masses were also held at the cathedral for popes Pius XI ( 1939 ) and Saint John Paul II ( 2005 ) , while an interfaith requiem was also held for former Governor General of Canada Georges Vanier in 1967 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Steeples and interior = = =
The cathedral , built in a French Gothic style , is cruciform in the shape of the Latin cross . The exterior walls of the church were built from sandstone originating from Gabriola Island , while its foundations were made of granite . The two bell towers – which are asymmetric – have been labelled as the cathedral 's " most prominent visual feature " . The taller steeple was originally designed to have flying buttresses at the bottom . The interior features columns that support the nave which are made from red Scagliola marble . The cathedra is situated at the centre of the sanctuary , surrounded by an oak altar @-@ piece and two towers of reredos . In total , the dimensions of the church building are 161 ft ( 49 m ) long , 104 ft ( 32 m ) wide and 62 ft ( 19 m ) tall , with the taller steeple rising to 217 ft ( 66 m ) .
Over the years , the cathedral has undergone a series of renovations . In late 1932 , the " tin scales " that covered spire of the taller steeple were cleaned and repaired , and the cross atop of it was repainted . The reordering of the sanctuary took place in the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council . Refurbishing also took place prior to Pope John Paul II 's visit to the cathedral in 1984 . The cathedral was completely re @-@ roofed from 1995 to 1997 , with zinc being utilized on the roof to resemble slate . In December 2002 , some of the carpeting was removed and replaced with Italian ceramic tiles , and the inside of the church was repainted from 2004 to 2006 .
= = = Bells = = =
When the cathedral was first built , seven bells – representing the sacraments – were cast at the Fonderie Paccard in Annecy @-@ le @-@ Vieux , Savoy , France and were blessed on October 21 , 1900 . However , they were soon found to be out of tune and were sent back to Europe , this time to a foundry near Bristol . This time , eight bells were made in order to complete an entire octave when rung . They were reinstalled in the cathedral in 1906 and operate on change ringing . They are one of the few peal of bells hung in the English style found in North America , and one of three in British Columbia – the others are located at Westminster Abbey in Mission and Victoria 's Christ Church Cathedral . The bells were notably rung on Dominion Day in 1911 – the first peal ever to be rung in Canada – and on February 12 , 2010 , in honour of the opening of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver .
= = = Organ = = =
The cathedral 's pipe organ was originally built and inaugurated in the autumn of 1900 . Manufactured by the Karn – Warren Organ Company in Woodstock , Ontario , the organ is the " oldest romantic @-@ style organ " in the province " remaining in its original location " . Over the years , the instrument 's condition deteriorated due to " general wear and tear " , shoddy repairs and water damage caused by the leaking roof . As a result , the organ was dismantled in 1999 and transported to Casavant Frères in Saint @-@ Hyacinthe , Quebec . It was restored within two years and returned to the church , where it was blessed in Easter of 2000 . In that same year , an organ concert series was hosted at the cathedral for the first time , and has been held annually since .
= = = Stained glass windows = = =
There are currently 21 stained glass windows at the cathedral . The most renowned ones are the five windows made by Canadian artist Guido Nincheri . They depict Our Lady of the Holy Rosary , the Baptism of Our Lord , Jesus Healing the Sick , Jesus with the Children and the Assumption . The window showing Our Lady of the Holy Rosary featured on Canada Post 's annual Christmas stamp in 1997 . Furthermore , the Institute for Stained Glass in Canada documented the stained glass windows at the cathedral .
= = Modern day = =
The cathedral made news in 2007 , with the Vancouver Police Department having to be called in on a weekly basis ; cathedral staff claimed they were " under siege " by panhandlers who frequented the building and who were involved in at least one incident daily . These revelations came to light when a homeless man mugged an 81 @-@ year @-@ old parishioner in the cathedral on August 1 of that year and was caught on camera .
On March 23 , 2008 , First Nations protesters disrupted an Easter Sunday Mass at the cathedral by demonstrating on the outside steps . They ordered the Church to " get off native land " and demanded that they disclose the burial locations of children who died in residential schools . A similar protest occurred on October 30 , 2011 , when a splinter group from the Occupy Vancouver movement marched to the cathedral from the Vancouver Art Gallery . They attempted to enter the cathedral and occupy it but were thwarted by Vancouver police officers and Knights of Columbus .
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= TISM =
TISM ( an acronym of This Is Serious Mum ) were a seven @-@ piece anonymous alternative rock band from Melbourne , Australia . The group were formed on 30 December 1982 by vocalist / drummer Humphrey B. Flaubert , bassist / vocalist Jock Cheese and keyboardist / vocalist Eugene de la Hot Croix Bun , and enjoyed a large underground / independent following . Their third album , Machiavelli and the Four Seasons , reached the Australian national top 10 in 1995 .
TISM were known for their hybrid of dance music and rock 'n'roll , high @-@ energy live shows and humorous lyrics . TISM 's songs frequently satirised modern culture , celebrities and the entertainment industry , classic literature and art , current affairs , politics and sport . The titles of their songs were often wordplays created by juxtaposing pop culture references with more intellectual ones ( for example , " Martin Scorsese Is Really Quite a Jovial Fellow " , " Jung Talent Time " and the album Machiavelli and the Four Seasons ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
On 30 December 1982 , Damian Cowell ( " Humphrey B. Flaubert " - drums and lead vocals ) , John Holt ( " Jock Cheese " - guitar , bass and backing vocals ) and Eugene Cester ( " Eugene de la Hot Croix Bun " - keyboards and backing vocals ) , recorded a nine @-@ song session called Great Truckin ' Songs of the Renaissance under the name This Is Serious Mum at the home of friend Peter Minack ( " Ron Hitler @-@ Barassi " ) . Minack , Cowell and Cester were members of a group called " I Can Run " , which slowly evolved into This Is Serious Mum .
The band 's first concert was on 6 December 1983 . The Get Fucked Concert at the Duncan McKinnon Athletics Reserve in the small suburb of Murrumbeena was considered a complete failure which caused the band to split up . They reformed in February 1984 and returned to their recordings , experimenting with dark ambient and industrial music , before returning to their rock style . They consider every subsequent performance a " re @-@ union gig " .
By 1985 the band were playing regularly around Melbourne and soon released a 10 @-@ track demo composed of selections from their recordings followed by their début single , " Defecate on My Face " ( 1986 ) , a 7 " vinyl record packaged in a 12 " sleeve with all four sides glued shut . This song is also found ( but is unlisted ) on the EP Form and Meaning Reach Ultimate Communion as a country version . Their next single , " 40 Years - Then Death " ( 1987 ) , was released on transparent vinyl in a clear plastic sleeve with no cover art or labels . This Is Serious Mum 's first radio @-@ friendly single , despite the obscure packaging , was received well .
The début album , Great Truckin ' Songs of the Renaissance ( 1988 ) , is a double vinyl release in an embossed gatefold sleeve . The first record contained twelve of TISM 's most popular tracks , and the second was a pastiche of interviews , bedroom recordings and live diatribes . Despite this odd combination , Truckin ' Songs entered the lower reaches of Australia 's mainstream Top 50 , as did the single " Saturday Night Palsy " . Later that year , The TISM Guide To Little Aesthetics , a book compiling lyrics , interviews and press releases , was published . Even though the physical books were printed in 1989 , they could not be released until 1990 due to TISM being required to hand @-@ censor the book with a mixture of white @-@ out and permanent marker , as well as place " CENSORED DUE TO LEGAL ADVICE " stickers on each copy of the book . Some uncensored copies of the book do exist , however .
In 1990 , TISM entered negotiations with CBS Records and Phonogram Records and were signed by the latter . In April that year , the band began work on what would become their next album with producer Laurence Maddy . When Phonogram released Hot Dogma ( 1990 ) it failed to reach the commercial charts , and TISM were fired six months later due to management issues , despite owing the label tens of thousands of dollars . Hot Dogma is the first release to use the acronymic form of the band 's name exclusively .
Over two nights in May 1991 , the band were filmed live and released the video Incontinent in Ten Continents ( 1991 ) . These performances were the last for guitarist Leek Van Vlalen .
= = = Rise to fame = = =
In mid @-@ 1991 , independent record label Shock Records signed TISM and re @-@ issued Great Truckin ' Songs of the Renaissance , as well as the EP Gentlemen , Start Your Egos ( 1991 ) , a compilation of tracks previously unavailable on CD . TISM , with producer Tony Cohen , then released the EP Beasts of Suburban ( 1992 ) . A new guitarist , ' Tony Coitus ' ( later ' Tokin ' Blackman ' ) joined the group onstage for the first time on 23 January 1992 .
The next EP , Australia The Lucky Cunt ( 1993 ) was TISM 's most controversial release to date . Courts issued an injunction order of the CD when the Ken Done Society threatened legal action over the artwork , which parodied Done 's signature style and depicted a koala sucking a syringe . The matter was settled for an undisclosed amount of money " fairly close to the amount that Radiohead spends on buying friends " and was re @-@ released with new artwork as Censored Due To Legal Advice . During 1994 , TISM sometimes played under the names " The Frank Vitkovic Jazz Quartet " , " Machiavelli and the Four Seasons " ( which would later be used as an album title ) and " Late for Breakfast " .
TISM 's biggest success was the 1995 album Machiavelli and the Four Seasons . The release was a shift from alternative @-@ rock to synth @-@ driven techno and dance which retained vocal melodies and loud guitars . The album was certified gold and won an ARIA Award for Best Independent Release . Three of its singles reached Triple J 's Hottest 100 , two of them in the top 10 . On 27 April 1995 the band appeared on the RMITV show Under Melbourne Tonight and performed " Protest Song " and " ( He 'll Never Be An ) Ol ' Man River " .
Success exposed TISM to mainstream Australian radio and television , most of which was perplexed by the band 's guerrilla approach to interviews and lack of interest in the music industry . A four CD box set of early albums was released and steady record sales allowed extensive tours of Australia and New Zealand . In 1996 TISM toured on the Big Day Out , during which Ron Hitler @-@ Barassi was either absent or wheelchair @-@ bound due to a detached retina and broken arm caused by a stage dive he performed at the Pacific Hotel , Lorne , Victoria prior to the tour . Later the same year , TISM toured England , the group 's sole Northern Hemisphere excursion .
Taking a year off from touring , TISM spent 1997 working on their next album with producer Lachlan Magoo . The album , www.tism.wanker.com ( 1998 ) was announced via a series of live Internet chats and webcasts . The first official music video for the album , I Might Be A Cunt , But I 'm Not A Fucking Cunt was rarely broadcast . Returned and Services League of Australia head Bruce Ruxton wrote a letter of complaint to Shock Records describing it as " ... Dropping [ Australia 's standards ] through the floor into the proverbial sewer . " The letter was published on TISM 's website at the time .
www.tism.wanker.com sold reasonably well , thanks in part to an extensive Australian tour with Regurgitator , then at the height of their popularity , and The Fauves ; however , sales were low compared to Machiavelli and the Four Seasons 's success and TISM 's contract with Shock ended by mutual agreement .
= = = After Shock records = = =
Following the 1998 tour , TISM signed with Festival Mushroom Records , which re @-@ released their entire back catalogue ( except for Hot Dogma , their previous singles and the bonus discs for Machiavelli and wanker.com ) on CD . Their first and only official album with FMR , De RigueurMortis ( 2001 ) , débuted at No. 24 on the ARIA chart and No. 3 on the Alternative ARIA Chart . Flaubert predicted on Triple J radio that the album would " plummet out of the top 40 like a stone " ; – the following week , it was not on the list . Touring became less thorough than in previous years , though no less active – at the closing of the Punters Club , the band ended up naked and tore the ceiling down during the gig . In early 2002 , the track " Honk If You Love Fred Durst " was released as a single . FMR then released tism.bestoff. ( 2002 ) , a best of compilation which included their greatest hits , two new tracks and a disc of remastered Bedroom Recordings . The compilation was their third , and last , release with Festival Mushroom Records , as TISM 's contract had ended .
Finding themselves with no record label again , TISM returned to touring . In late 2003 , a special one @-@ off concert was filmed and released on DVD as The White Albun ( 2004 ) by Madman Entertainment . A documentary and full length album were also included , making it a 3 @-@ disc set which received good reviews ; however , the release was not eligible for ARIA chart tracking . The concert DVD is presented as a telethon at which TISM breaks up . Ironically , TISM performed after that concert in order to promote the set .
For six years , TISM 's final release seemed to be the German CD @-@ single " Everyone Else Has Had More Sex Than Me " ( 2005 ) . It was TISM 's first non @-@ Australian release : Sony / BMG Germany expressed interest when the song 's animated clip was an Internet hit thanks to bloggers and sites such as YouTube . The single reached the German commercial charts .
At the band 's penultimate concert on 13 November 2004 , Ron Hitler @-@ Barassi delivered a diatribe saying that the band had " lost the election " and made references to Guy Sebastian winning the year 's season of Australian Idol . This opening remark can be interpreted as the band announcing their breakup .
= = = Current status = = =
In a 2006 interview with Triple J , when asked about the current status of TISM , Flaubert remarked : " we are slowly moving towards our deaths " . In early December that year , Flaubert contributed to the ABC 's " My Favourite Album " program , where he stated his favourite album as " Any album – as long as it 's by Nickelback ! " Later the same month , TISM were inducted into the EG ( The Age Entertainment Guide ) Hall of Fame , at which they made an appearance and " a hilariously irreverent speech " .
TISM 's final concert was at the Earthcore Festival on 27 October 2004 . For all appearances , it had appeared that TISM had split , with no announcement or fanfare .
In early 2007 , a Melbourne country and western band called Root ! appeared on MySpace , with Humphrey B. Flaubert ( now called DC Root ) on vocals . Their debut album was released in December 2007 .
On 29 April 2008 , guitarist James Paull ( Tokin ' Blackman ) died of cancer . Initial news reports confused Paull with bassist Jock Cheese ( the confusion stemming from Paull 's personal nickname of Jock ) . He was survived by his wife Maddy and their daughter Ella .
In October 2009 , the majority of TISM 's back catalogue was re @-@ released on iTunes with bonus material .
In 2010 , their website ( www.tism.com.au ) was altered to show an older @-@ style TISM logo with TISM related mannerisms that altered when the page was refreshed . On 8 April 2011 , YouTube user " tismwebsite " uploaded a previously unseen video of Tokin ' Blackman improvising a guitar solo . It was added to the front page of tism.com.au on 29 April 2011 , the third anniversary of Tokin 's passing , prior to the site being revamped and relaunched .
In March 2010 , TISM released on iTunes , a " 21st century mix " of their single Shut Up – The Footy 's On The Radio The 21st century mix had Humphrey B. Flaubert on vocals and Jock Cheese on guitars , and had wholly new lyrics . This is the most recent TISM release to date .
In mid @-@ 2010 , Flaubert 's project Root ! announced they would be playing their " Last Ever Show " on 20 August 2010 . Although the press release concluded with " ... is there a new project on the way ? All will be revealed soon . Stay tuned . " Following this , a Facebook page was sent out to friends of DC Root which promoted a new band named ' The DC3 ' ; itself a reference to ' DC Root ' and his real name of Damian Cowell . The band 's first single was released on 26 November 2010 titled " I Was The Guy in TISM . "
In early 2011 , a video of a TISM @-@ like band performing was uploaded , said to be of ex @-@ TISM members Les Miserables , Jock Cheese , Leek Van Vlalen and Eugene de la Hot Croix Bun performing for Van Vlalen 's 50th birthday party . The songs performed were " ExistentialTISM ' , " I 'm Interested in Apathy " and the country version of " Defecate on My Face " .
In October 2012 guitarist Sean Kelly ( ' Leak Van Vlalen ' ) teamed with " old friend and die hard TISM fan " Kieran Butler for two Melbourne shows as RealiTISM , performing TISM songs interspersed with Kelly chatting about " what went on behind the scenes – and the balaclavas . " During 2012 and 2013 , the duo performed several shows .
In April 2013 , Kieran Butler talked with Damian Cowell , occasionally touching on his time in TISM .
In 2015 , Cowell crowd @-@ funded and launched his solo project and self @-@ titled album Damian Cowell 's Disco Machine , the album including notable entertainment personalities such as Kathy Lette , Tony Martin and Shaun Micallef , Lee Lin Chin , The Bedroom Philosopher , Kate Miller @-@ Heidke , Tim Rogers and John Safran - most of whom performed at the sold out show at The Corner Hotel in late February 2015 . This show followed the announcement that Australia would be invited to enter the Eurovision Song Contest and a petition was started on Change.org to reunite TISM as Australia 's representatives . The petition received national news coverage in Australia after amassing several thousand signatories on its first day .
= = Members = =
TISM members were pseudonymous and anonymous . They wore balaclavas during all public appearances . However , some of their names have been revealed ( see below ) .
Current
Ron Hitler @-@ Barassi ( Peter Minack ) - vocals
Humphrey B. Flaubert ( Damian Cowell ) - drums , vocals
Jock Cheese ( Jack Holt ) - bass , vocals , guitar
Eugene de la Hot @-@ Croix Bun ( Eugene Cester ) - keyboards , vocals
Jon St. Peenis ( Aaron Cowell ) - saxophone , vocals
Les Miserables ( Andy Armstrong ) - dancing , vocals
Former
Tokin ' Blackman ( first billed as Tony Coitus ) ( James Paull ) : Guitar ( 1991 – 2008 ) ( deceased )
Leak Van Vlalen ( Sean Kelly ) : Guitar ( 1982 – 1991 )
Genre B. Goode : Vocals ( 1982 – 1985 )
Les Miserables : ( Andrew Miglietti ) : Dancing ( 1982 @-@ 1991 )
Jon St. Peenis : ( Marco Fessey ) : Saxophone , Vocals ( 1982 @-@ 1991 )
St. Peenis played saxophone on earlier recordings . Cheese plays guitar on various recordings and live shows . Blackman arranged orchestral sections on The White Albun ( 2004 ) . Flaubert programs rhythms and samples , and has occasionally played acoustic drumkits live . There has been more than one person performing under the Les Miserables name , as confirmed by Sean Kelly ( Leak Van Vlalen ) during the " RealiTISM " video .
= = = Identities = = =
TISM have used a variety of methods to conceal their identities . They have never officially revealed their names , instead choosing to use pseudonyms on their records and in interviews , all the while concealing their faces . Usually this involves the wearing of a balaclava , but outrageous costumes have been created for the purpose , including Ku Klux Klan uniforms made of newspaper , silver suits with puffy arms and legs to mimic an inflated cask wine bladder , giant foam paintings worn on the head , large foam signs bearing the name of a Beatle , fat ' businessman ' suits , and eight @-@ foot @-@ high inflatable headpieces among others .
Who TISM are beneath the masks has been the cause of much speculation by fans , with one theory contending that TISM is composed of members of other bands who do not want their fans to find out : popular targets of this theory include Painters and Dockers , Machine Gun Fellatio and even The Wiggles . A theory based on the band 's tour schedule 's roughly coinciding with school holidays , and the fact that the Ringwood Secondary College Choir and Orchestra feature in the filmclip to Thunderbirds Are Coming Out , proposes that TISM are school teachers . Another common theory , based on the high incidence of football references in their lyrics , is that they are Australian rules football players in the AFL , however Humphrey B. Flaubert has stated that " We 're actually not AFL , we 're more violent and crappy ... so you 're looking at the VFL there . "
When asked why they wear masks , Flaubert replied :
The answer that makes me sound good is that we desired to circumvent the cult of personality that is inherent in rock music by choosing to remain anonymous . Unlike every other band in rock we chose to be anonymous . The answer that makes me sound good would probably also incorporate some lengthy discussion about Brechtian alienation techniques , about our post modernist grasp of ever cooling universe , and a dehumanising society encapsulated in the somewhat paramilitary aspect of our clothing . All of those things would make me sound good , but actually we ’ re really boring guys . "
However , when TISM performed on John Safran 's Music Jamboree in 2002 playing " ( He 'll Never Be An ) Ol ' Man River " on instruments from Greece , the song writers ' names were revealed during the credit roll which read " ' ( He 'll Never Be An ) Ol ' Man River ' by Damian Cowell / Peter Minack / Jack Holt / James Paull / Eugene Cester ... Performed by TISM . " Up until then , the songwriters ' names were publicly available on the APRA / AMCOS database , but now the songwriting credits on the site just say " TISM " instead of the members ' real names . Damian Cowell 's real name is listed as one of the songwriters of ROOT ! ' s songs , however .
The song writers ' names were also published later , alongside information on " Everyone Else Has Had More Sex Than Me " when it hit success in Sweden and Germany in 2004 .
However , vigilant fans would have noticed the names years earlier . Hitler @-@ Barassi was photographed in 1993 at the opening night of Madame Butterfly , which was published on 4 April 1993 ; the book revealed the member to be Peter Minack , who later released a book of his own ( Campaigning With Grant ) in 2000 , which was about the American Civil War . The book contains thin references to TISM . In interviews about his book , Minack revealed he was a teacher , his father fought in World War II for the Germans and that he is fanatical about the Richmond Football Club , explaining his stage moniker .
TISM bassist Jock Cheese 's real name , John ( Jack ) Holt , can be found on a list of copyright owners on Mushroom Records circa the release of his solo album Platter ( 2002 ) . Guitarist Tokin Blackman 's real name is James " Jock " Paull . He died in mid @-@ 2008 of cancer .
Eugene Cester was revealed in an Age column as being the uncle of Nic Cester , lead singer of Melbourne 's Jet , however , it did not state which member he is ; it is believed that he is Eugene De La Hot Croix Bun .
On 28 March 2007 , a MySpace page opened for a Melbourne band called Root ! which the lead singer claimed to be " the friend of the uncle of the guys in Jet " . The page also lists James Paull as a " friend " . Humphrey B. Flaubert 's real name is Damian Cowell , who performs in the band as D.C. Root .
In the Jock Cheese @-@ penned song " Let 's Club It to Death " from Hot Dogma , Cheese drops his real first name in the first verse ( " My friends call me John / But you can call me Breaker Morant " ) .
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Style = =
TISM were distinguished from other ' joke ' or ' gimmick bands ' , by , among other things , their musical style . The band rarely in any seriousness stated actual influences on the type of music they played , except that The Residents were a band which TISM ' did ' notice and ' possibly ' took some influence from . A clear link can be drawn from The Residents ' The Third Reich ' n ' Roll video , in which that band wore Ku Klux Klan uniforms made of newspaper : TISM did exactly this at their first gig . Another link may be drawn to early TISM tracks " The Ballad of the Semitic Nazi " or " I 'm Gonna Treat Ya to a Neitschze Double Feature " ( sic ) which use a similar naming convention to The Residents . Other bands which may have influenced TISM are difficult to pinpoint , although a Sydney Morning Herald article on the band described them as " a cross between Skyhooks , Dave Warner , Talking Heads and The Residents " .
The band were criticised as unoriginal for continually opting for standard pop song structures . One reason for this is clarified in their book , The TISM Guide To Little Aesthetics , in the following paragraphs , when asked why their ideas are post @-@ modern but their music is not :
" Give me a pop @-@ song , mate . Give me a fucking pop @-@ song . Not only is it more fun , it 's pretty fuckin ' hard to write as well . You can bung in as many out @-@ of @-@ tune oboes as you want , but putting chords together so they sound pleasant isn 't as simple as it might appear . It mightn 't be the Sistine Chapel , but what is ? Ollie fucking Olsen with his stupid feedback and cough mixture ? The Jesus and Mary Chain , with their stupid feedback , and their stupid stage show with 800 powerful stupid lights and enough stupid dry ice to enhance their stupid stupidity up its own bullshit crappy teenage pretentious one dimensional dick witted puissant artistic enigma ?
So ... what have you listened to for a good time that isn 't , after all , a ' traditional ' song ? Still playing the Mike Oldfield records , huh ? Still whipping Yessongs on for a good time ? Wanna count on one hand how many people have fun at a Sonic Youth gig ? I 'm not supporting The Choirboys , old man , I 'm just saying that the day some jumped @-@ up over @-@ paid self @-@ important post @-@ modernist cocksucker puts his foot upon his Fairlight computer in the middle of his 47 @-@ minute opus " The Silent Forgiveness of the Pig @-@ God " and belts out the chords to " Johnny B. Goode " is the day I 'll join you at the footlights of post @-@ modernism .
Besides which , pop songs sell more . "
As with most bands , recurring themes were present throughout TISM 's extensive output , the most common being death , violence , fame and prominent figures , drugs , including alcohol , and the Australian Football League . Many of TISM 's lyrics are tinged in fatalism , mocking both the superficial and the sublime side of the human condition and the desire for people to be loved and respected ( even just in the titles of such songs as " If You 're Not Famous at Fourteen , You 're Finished " , " If You 're Ugly , Forget It " and " Everyone Else Has Had More Sex Than Me " ) .
TISM 's keyboard sound was provided by an Optigan which keyboardist Eugene Cester ran through a flanger . They mainly used standard tuning ; however , Eb tuning and drop D were employed in some songs . Jock Cheese 's bass was prominent in the songs to a degree that head of Festival Mushroom Records , Michael Parisi , described the sound as " aggressive " and one fan , reviewing Cheese 's solo album Platter , described the basslines as being " heavy " .
= = Discography = =
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= Italian cruiser Piemonte =
Piemonte was a unique protected cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s by the British shipyard Armstrong Whitworth . She was the first major warship armed entirely with quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns and she was also the fastest cruiser in the world upon her completion in 1889 . Piemonte was frequently deployed overseas , including a lengthy tour in East Asian waters from 1901 to 1904 . She saw significant action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 in the Red Sea , where she frequently bombarded Ottoman ports . During the Battle of Kunfuda Bay in January 1912 , she and two destroyers sank four Ottoman gunboats and forced ashore three more . Piemonte participated in World War I but she saw little action during the conflict . She remained in service until 1920 , when she was scrapped .
= = Design = =
The first design by the newly hired naval architect Philips Watts for Armstrong Whitworth , Piemonte was designed as an improved version of the Italian cruiser Dogali . The ship was built as a speculative venture and was purchased by Italy on 30 July 1888 for delivery in six months . Her intended armament consisted of two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and four 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , all breech @-@ loading weapons , but the Italians insisted that she be equipped with six 6 @-@ inch QF guns . The changes to the magazines and the addition of large sponsons to accommodate the QF guns significantly delayed her completion . Piemonte was the first major warship to be armed with medium @-@ caliber , quick @-@ firing guns ; these weapons would become the standard armament for cruisers in the 1890s .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Piemonte was 310 feet ( 94 @.@ 5 m ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 38 feet ( 11 @.@ 6 m ) . She had a mean draft of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) and displaced 2 @,@ 473 long tons ( 2 @,@ 513 t ) . The ship had a crew of 12 officers and 245 enlisted crew . Piemonte was fitted with two heavy military masts and had a partial double bottom . The large sponsons extended down to about a foot ( 305 millimeters ) of the water and proved to be very wet in service . She proved to be rather overgunned for her size and her freeboard was only 8 feet 3 inches ( 2 @.@ 51 m ) a normal load and 6 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) at deep load .
The ship was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder Humphrys , Tennant vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . The stroke of her engines was 27 inches ( 690 mm ) and the bores of their cylinders were 36 inches ( 910 mm ) , 55 inches ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) and 60 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) . The low @-@ pressure cylinder of Piemonte ' engines was split in two for smoother running and she was the first warship thus equipped . Steam for the engines was supplied by four double @-@ ended Scotch marine boilers at a pressure of 155 psi ( 1 @,@ 069 kPa ; 11 kgf / cm2 ) and their exhausts were trunked into a pair of funnels amidships . Designed for a maximum output of 12 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 900 kW ) , her engines produced 7 @,@ 040 ihp ( 5 @,@ 250 kW ) , using natural draught , and gave the ship a speed of 20 @.@ 4 knots ( 37 @.@ 8 km / h ; 23 @.@ 5 mph ) during her sea trials in May 1889 . Using forced draught increased her engine output to 12 @,@ 600 ihp ( 9 @,@ 400 kW ) and her speed to 22 @.@ 3 knots ( 41 @.@ 3 km / h ; 25 @.@ 7 mph ) . This made her the fastest cruiser in the world . The ship normally embarked a total of 200 long tons ( 203 t ) of coal , but could carry a maximum of 600 long tons ( 610 t ) . Piemonte had a cruising radius of about 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At full speed , she could steam for 1 @,@ 950 nmi ( 3 @,@ 610 km ; 2 @,@ 240 mi ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Piemonte was armed with a main battery of six 6 @-@ inch L / 40 guns in single mounts . One gun was placed forward and one aft , with two on each broadside abreast of the masts . These guns were mounted in sponsons to allow direct ahead and astern firing . They were supported by a secondary battery of six 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) L / 40 guns in single mounts , three on each side between the 15 cm guns . Light weapons included ten 57 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss L / 40 guns , six 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss L / 20 guns , and four 10 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) Maxim machine guns . Four of 1 @-@ pounder and all of the machine guns were mounted in the military masts . She was also equipped with 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . One was mounted in the bow and the other two were on the broadside in rotating mounts , all above water .
Armor protection consisted of a sloped deck that ranged in thickness from 1 inch ( 25 mm ) on the flat and 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) on the slopes . The armor protecting her conning tower consisted of three inches of steel plating . The guns of her main and secondary armament were protected by gun shields 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 110 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Piemonte was built by the British shipyard Armstrong Whitworth in Elswick . Her keel was laid down in 1887 and she was launched on 23 August 1888 . After completing fitting @-@ out work , the new cruiser was completed on 8 September 1889 and delivered to the Regia Marina . In 1890 , Piemonte participated in the annual fleet maneuvers in the First Squadron , along with the ironclad Lepanto , Dogali , and several torpedo boats . The exercises were conducted in the Tyrrhenian Sea , where the First Squadron was tasked with defending against an attacking " hostile " squadron . By 1891 , the Italian Navy had determined that Piemonte 's armament was too heavy , and so the four broadside 6 @-@ inch guns were replaced with lighter 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns and their sponsons removed . In addition , the heavy military masts were replaced by light pole masts . In the following years , the ship served in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean in addition to the Mediterranean . In mid @-@ 1896 , violence against Italians in Brazil prompted the Italian government to dispatch Piemonte on a mission to secure the interests of Italian nationals in the country . The attempt at gunboat diplomacy secured an official apology from the Brazilian government , as well as an arrangement to adjudicate Italian claims of damages by the United States ' and German ambassadors .
In late 1901 , Piemonte was assigned to the East Asian station after a year @-@ long modernization . She passed through the Suez Canal and the Red Sea and stopped to coal in British Aden while en route to Asian waters . In September 1902 she was in Nagasaki , Japan , with the Italian cruiser Lombardia . Piemonte met the British cruiser HMS Talbot in the British colony at Weihaiwei . A party of officers and men from Piemonte visited the British ship on 28 July . That year , she was joined by the armored cruiser Vettor Pisani and the protected cruiser Elba . The following year , the armored cruiser Marco Polo and the protected cruiser Puglia were scheduled to replace Vettor Pisani and Piemonte , respectively , but due to the outbreak of the Russo @-@ Japanese War on 8 February 1904 , Piemonte remained in the region . On 24 February , Piemonte arrived in Seoul and landed a contingent of infantry to augment the guards at the Italian embassy . Piemonte was finally recalled to Italy in April ; she stopped in Singapore on 22 April to coal , departing two days later for home .
By 1908 , Piemonte had been assigned as the flagship of the torpedo flotilla of the main fleet , which consisted of seventeen destroyers and fifty first and second class torpedo boats . In August that year , Piemonte participated in the annual summer maneuvers of the Italian fleet . She was assigned to a squadron and was tasked with defending against an opponent fleet that attempted to force an amphibious landing . The maneuvers were modeled on a potential war with Italy 's nominal ally Austria @-@ Hungary , and the fact that the relative strengths of the two squadrons mirrored the Italian and Austro @-@ Hungarian navies was not lost on analysts in Vienna . The Maneuvers concluded with a fleet review on 18 October . Piemonte then spent 1909 deployed again to the Far East .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
At the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Piemonte was stationed in the Red Sea with four other cruisers . In December , she and the other cruisers patrolled the Ottoman ports in the Red Sea for ships that might be preparing to carry a rumored invasion force across the narrow sea to Italian Eritrea . Hostilities were temporarily ceased while the British King George V passed through the Red Sea following his coronation ceremony in India — the ceasefire lasted until 26 November .
In early 1912 , the Italian Red Sea Fleet searched for a group of seven Ottoman gunboats thought to be planning an attack on Eritrea , though they were in fact immobilized due to a lack of coal . Piemonte and the destroyers Artigliere and Garibaldino searched for the gunboats while the cruisers Calabria and Puglia carried out diversionary bombardments against Jebl Tahr , and Al Luḩayyah . On 7 January , they found the gunboats and quickly sank four in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay ; the other three were forced to beach to avoid sinking as well . The next day , the Italian warships sent a shore party to destroy the grounded gunboats .
Piemonte and the rest of the Italian ships returned to bombarding the Turkish ports in the Red Sea before declaring a blockade of the city of Al Hudaydah on 26 January . Piemonte accidentally damaged the railroad that was being built by a French company when she bombarded the port of Djebana . As a result , the French firm sued the Italian government for the sum of 200 @,@ 000 lire . By April , Piemonte was serving as the flagship of the Italian squadron in the Red Sea . On 27 July and 12 August , Piemonte , the torpedo cruisers Caprera and Aretusa conducted two bombardments of Al Hudaydah . During the 12 August attack , they destroyed an Ottoman ammunition dump . Piemonte thereafter left the Red Sea with four destroyers . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
= = = Later career = = =
Then @-@ Lieutenant Alessandro Guidoni proposed in 1912 to convert Piemonte into an aircraft carrier capable of operating seaplanes and fixed @-@ wheel aircraft . His projected reconstruction would have seen an inclined flight deck erected on the aft half of the ship , tall enough to clear the ships ' funnels . The Regia Marina were not interested in operating wheeled aircraft at sea and so the idea was not pursued . In 1913 , the last two of the ship 's 6 @-@ inch guns were replaced with 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns in another attempt to lighten the ship .
When Italy entered World War I on 23 May 1915 , Piemonte was based in Brindisi and was assigned to the Second Fleet , which included the Regina Elena and Regina Margherita @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships and the Pisa and San Giorgio @-@ class armored cruisers . The primary naval opponent for the duration of the war was the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ; the Naval Chief of Staff , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , planned a distant blockade with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats conducted raids . The heavy ships of the Italian fleet would be preserved for a potential major battle in the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet should emerge from its bases . As a result , the ship 's activities during the war was limited and she spent much of it based at Salonica , Greece as part of the Anglo @-@ French Levant Squadron . Plans to use her for torpedo trials after the war came to nothing and Piemonte was stricken from the Navy List on 15 May 1920 and broken up shortly afterwards .
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= Operation Pig Bristle =
Operation Pig Bristle was an unusual transport task conducted by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in May 1946 . The operation was ordered by the Australian Government in response to a national shortage of paint brushes , which was hindering house @-@ building efforts . No. 38 Squadron of the RAAF was given the task of transporting 25 tonnes of pig bristles from Chongqing in China to Hong Kong , from where the bristles were shipped to Australia . The squadron completed this task over a two @-@ week period .
= = Background = =
Following World War II , the Australian Commonwealth and state governments launched a joint Commonwealth Housing Scheme to address a national shortage of accommodation . This scheme , and private sector house @-@ building activities , was delayed by a shortage of materials , including pig bristles needed to manufacture paint brushes .
At the time , the only available source of pig bristles was China . In 1946 , the company Jardine Matheson acquired 100 tonnes ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of bristles for the British government and a further 25 tonnes ( 25 long tons ; 28 short tons ) for Australia from remote locations in China near the border with Tibet . These stocks were transported to Chongqing , the capital of the Kuomintang government , and Jardine Matheson eventually gained permission to export them to Australia and Britain . This supply of bristles would be sufficient to meet Australia 's needs for several months .
As the Chinese Civil War was raging at the time and Communist forces were attacking river boats travelling from Chongqing , it was judged necessary to transport the pig bristles from the city by air . The Kuomintang government agreed to allow RAAF and Royal Air Force aircraft to fly return flights between Hong Kong and Chongqing between 1 and 14 May only . After arriving in Hong Kong , the bristles would be shipped to Australia by sea . Both the Kuomintang government and the Communist forces were concerned about the presence of foreigners in China , and the Australian aircrew were warned that they would be imprisoned if they landed anywhere other than Chongqing or an emergency airstrip at Canton .
= = Operation = =
The RAAF 's No. 38 Squadron was selected to transport Australia 's share of the bristles . This squadron was equipped with Douglas Dakota aircraft , and was responsible at the time for conducting regular flights from Australia to Japan carrying personnel and supplies for the Australian element of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . A detachment of three Dakotas led by No. 38 Squadron 's commanding officer , Squadron Leader John Balfe , was sent from Australia to Hong Kong in preparation for the task . As flying conditions were expected to be difficult , each of these aircraft was manned by two highly experienced pilots as well as another airman who performed the duties of navigator , radio operator and flight engineer .
The flights from Hong Kong to Chongqing began in early May 1946 . At this time Chongqing had been isolated by Communist forces , and foreign embassies were being evacuated from the city ahead of its expected occupation by the Communists . No navigation aids were available to guide the Australian aircraft , and their crews had to use inaccurate road maps for navigation during the 1 @,@ 100 @-@ kilometre ( 680 mi ) trips between Chongqing and Hong Kong . The RAAF aircrew found the flights between Hong Kong and Chongqing to be challenging as a result of mountains around the Chinese city , as well as the expected lack of accurate weather forecasts and navigation aids . As the Australian legation was evacuated from Chongqing in early May , the RAAF aircrew slept at the British embassy when they needed to overnight in the city . The detachment was successful in flying out the pig bristles within the two weeks available , with eight return flights being made to Chongqing . In his memoirs Balfe attributed this success to " reasonable weather and everyone 's enthusiasm " . After completing their task , the three Dakotas left Hong Kong bound for Australia on 14 May .
= = Delivery = =
Some of the pig bristles were rushed to Australia on board No. 38 Squadron aircraft , and the remainder were transported from Hong Kong by sea . On 29 May it was reported that the shortage of pig bristles had been overcome . One of the pilots involved in Operation Pig Bristle received the Air Force Cross in the 1948 New Years Honours in recognition of his role in the operation . RAAF official historian Alan Stephens wrote in 1995 that " John Balfe 's brief but thrilling account of his team 's exotic adventure should be mandatory reading in every RAAF air transport crew room " .
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= 2004 Emerald Bowl =
The 2004 Emerald Bowl was a post @-@ season college football bowl game between the New Mexico Lobos and the Navy Midshipmen on December 30 , 2004 at SBC Park in San Francisco , California , United States . The game , which Navy won with a final score of 34 – 19 , was highlighted by a 26 @-@ play drive from the Midshipmen that took up almost 15 minutes of game time and set the record for the longest drive in a National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) college football game . The contest was the third time the Emerald Bowl was played and the final game of the 2004 NCAA football season for both teams .
The conference independent Navy Midshipmen , who finished the regular season with a 9 – 2 record , accepted an invitation to play in the game on November 22 , 2004 . Eight days later , the 7 – 4 New Mexico Lobos agreed to fill the open spot reserved for a Mountain West Conference team . Leading up to the game , sports writers predicted that a major highlight of the contest would be the rushing offenses of Midshipmen head coach Paul Johnson and Lobos head coach Rocky Long ; both teams ranked in the top rushing offenses in the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) . The Lobos also ranked as one of the nation 's top rushing defenses .
The game began at 1 : 35 p.m. PST in rainy conditions that had affected the San Francisco Bay Area for days before the contest . The Lobos scored a touchdown on the game 's first drive to take an early lead , but the Midshipmen scored three touchdowns to bring the score to 21 – 7 early in the second quarter . After the Lobos narrowed that lead to 12 points by the end of the third quarter , the Midshipmen began a long drive which took up much of the fourth quarter . The drive ended with a field goal , which gave Navy a 15 @-@ point lead with a little over two minutes remaining in the game . On the next drive from the Lobos , the Midshipmen forced a turnover on downs and ran out the clock with their last possession to win the game .
Midshipmen players Aaron Polanco and Vaughn Kelley were named the game 's offensive and defensive Most Valuable Players , respectively . The win caused the Midshipmen to finish the season with a 10 – 2 record , their best record since the 1905 season . After the game , the Associated Press College Poll and the USA Today Coaches ' Poll ranked the team as the 24th best in the nation . The loss caused the Lobos ' record to fall to 7 – 5 .
= = Team selection = =
First played in 2002 when it was called the Diamond Walnut San Francisco Bowl , organizers announced a new name in May 2004 for that year 's iteration of the annual game for the 2004 – 05 NCAA football bowl season . The new title for the game was derived from the Emerald Nuts brand owned by the game 's primary sponsor , Diamond Foods . Originally , the game was to feature the sixth bowl eligible team from the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference and the third eligible team from the Mountain West Conference .
= = = Navy = = =
Since only two teams from the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference had become bowl eligible near the end of the 2004 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season , organizers looked to the United States Naval Academy Midshipmen , who were not a member of any athletic conference , to fill the open spot . The team accepted their invitation to play in the Emerald Bowl on November 22 , two days after defeating the Rutgers Scarlet Knights with a score of 54 – 21 to earn an 8 – 2 record . The Midshipmen had originally intended to play in the 2004 Liberty Bowl , but chose the Emerald Bowl when it looked as though Liberty Bowl organizers were seeking a matchup of more " high @-@ powered offenses " . After defeating the Army Black Knights with a score of 42 – 13 in that year 's Army – Navy Game , the Midshipmen ended the regular season with a record of 9 – 2 , the first time since the 1963 college football season that Navy had won nine or more games in a season . Wins over Army and the Air Force Falcons secured Navy 's second consecutive Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief 's Trophy . Navy 's previous bowl game , the 2003 Houston Bowl , had ended in a 38 – 14 loss to the Texas Tech Red Raiders .
= = = New Mexico = = =
The University of New Mexico Lobos accepted the game 's other invitation on December 30 , 2004 . The Lobos finished the regular season with five straight wins , culminating in a 16 – 9 win over conference rival Wyoming to finish with a record of 7 – 4 . The game marked the first time in the program 's history the team had played in three straight bowl games , having lost in the 2002 and 2003 editions of the Las Vegas Bowl to the UCLA Bruins and the Oregon State Beavers , respectively . The bowl game was the first meeting between was the two teams .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
Prior to the game , spread bettors favored the New Mexico Lobos by a single point . Given both teams ' propensity for running the ball and the rainy weather conditions that had affected the San Francisco area for days prior to the game , analysts expected that it would center around both teams ' rushing offenses . The Baltimore Sun sports writer Kent Baker predicted that " the teams ' non @-@ reliance on the pass will serve both well . The game should be fairly low scoring and rapidly played , with the Midshipmen eking out a victory . "
= = = Navy = = =
The Midshipmen triple option rushing offense , including future National Football League ( NFL ) fullback Kyle Eckel , ranked third among FBS teams in total rushing yards and averaged 291 rushing yards per game . The Midshipmen passing offense , however , ranked 116th out of 117 FBS teams . Using a 3 – 4 defensive scheme , the Midshipmen had experienced mixed levels of defensive success . Although the defensive backs had set a team record for interceptions returned for touchdowns during the season , analysts and fans criticized the squad for a 42 – 10 loss to the Tulane Green Wave . Special teams play was a noted weakness for Navy ; kicker Geoff Blumenfeld had missed seven of ten field goal attempts during the season , including three at distances shorter than 30 yards . The Midshipmen , who had recently completed rigorous midterm exams , were also mourning the death of former teammate J. P. Blecksmith , who had been killed at the Second Battle of Fallujah in the Iraq war in November .
= = = New Mexico = = =
The Lobos also relied heavily on their rushing offense . Running back DonTrell Moore had gained 3 @,@ 667 career yards and averaged 106 rushing yards per game coming into the contest . When both Moore and quarterback Kole McKamey played for the Lobos , the team had a record of 6 – 1 , averaging 21 @.@ 4 offensive points per game ; however , when either player was sidelined with an injury , the team 's record dropped to 1 – 3 and the offense averaged 10 @.@ 3 points per game . The Lobos ' passing offense also ranked near the bottom of the FBS , at 115th . Wide receiver Hank Baskett led the team with 49 receptions for 793 yards during the season . The Lobos entered the bowl game with the eighth best rushing defense in the country , allowing an average of 93 @.@ 6 rushing yards per game . The team had allowed 107 yards of rushing offense in its previous four games combined ; it ranked first in the Mountain West Conference in fewest points allowed and most sacks , and had not allowed a rushing touchdown it its last five games . With a win , Lobos head coach Rocky Long would set a team record for most wins as a head coach .
= = Game summary = =
The 2004 Emerald Bowl began with a 1 : 35 p.m. PST kickoff time in SBC Park . Because the field had been converted from the baseball diamond typically used by the San Francisco Giants , both teams shared the same sideline during the game . Rainy conditions caused the field 's natural grass surface to become muddier as the game progressed . Although 30 @,@ 563 tickets were sold , an increase of 19 percent from the 2003 game , official in @-@ stadium attendance was listed at 28 @,@ 856 , an increase of 28 percent over the previous year . Despite New Mexico 's closer proximity to the bowl site , Midshipmen fans comprised a large portion of the crowd ; Navy directly sold 18 @,@ 000 tickets prior to the game and was given credit for 22 @,@ 000 . The game aired live on ESPN2 , with Eric Collins and Andre Ware serving as announcers . With a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 04 , the game was watched by over four million households , approximately 65 percent more viewers than the previous year .
= = = First quarter = = =
The Midshipmen kicked off to the Lobos to begin the game . New Mexico then executed a 66 @-@ yard drive that comprised nearly seven minutes of game time , which ended when quarterback Kole McKamey threw a 9 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Logan Hall . Midshipmen quarterback Aaron Polanco responded on the next drive by scoring a 14 @-@ yard rushing touchdown , tying the score at 7 – 7 . On the following drive from the Lobos , running back DonTrell Moore tore his anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) when Midshipmen cornerback Vaughn Kelley made a low tackle . Moore fumbled the ball as he was tackled , and did not return for the remainder of the game . Midshipmen linebacker Lane Jackson recovered the fumble . On the Midshipmen 's next drive , running back Frank Divis executed a halfback option pass trick play to Polanco for 17 yards , the team 's biggest gain of the first quarter . Two plays later , Polanco scored another touchdown on a 1 @-@ yard run up the middle , giving Navy a 14 – 7 lead at the end of the first quarter .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The Midshipmen began the second quarter with a two @-@ play , 30 @-@ second drive that ended with a 61 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Polanco to receiver Corey Dryden , increasing the team 's lead to 21 – 7 . The Lobos responded with a rushing touchdown from running back Rodney Ferguson , but kicker Wes Zunker 's extra point attempt was no good , making the score 21 – 13 . Midshipmen kicker Geoff Blumenfeld added a 27 @-@ yard field goal to bring the score to 24 – 13 . McKamey scored another rushing touchdown to cap off another long drive , this time taking up over five minutes of game time , but the team 's two @-@ point conversion attempt failed . Lane Jackson intercepted McKamey 's pass on the Lobos final drive before half @-@ time , ending the first half of the game with a score of 24 – 19 in favor of the Midshipmen .
= = = Third quarter = = =
The Lobos began the second half of the game with a kickoff to Navy , and after an unsuccessful drive from each team , the Midshipmen began a drive on their own 25 @-@ yard line with 11 : 30 left in the quarter . With 7 : 01 left , Polanco scored another rushing touchdown for the Midshipmen , this time for 28 yards . The next Lobos drive began with two penalties from the Midshipmen , moving New Mexico from its own 31 @-@ yard line to Navy 's 49 before their first snap . The Lobos moved 48 yards over the course of eight plays and almost five minutes of game time , but the team committed a turnover on downs inches away from the goal line when running back D.D. Cox was forced out of bounds on fourth down , preventing the team from scoring any points . Getting the ball back with a 31 – 19 lead , Navy began their next drive on their own 1 @-@ yard line with 1 : 41 remaining in the third quarter . Polanco rushed for three more plays before the end of the quarter .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Continuing Navy 's drive from the previous quarter , Polanco and Eckel continued to run up the middle and the right side of New Mexico 's defense for small gains . Polanco attempted two passes , the first of which was incomplete and the second to slotback Marco Nelson for a first down at the Midshipmen 44 @-@ yard line . After 12 plays and over six minutes of game time , the drive reached midfield . After six more rushing plays from Polanco , Eckel , and slotback Eric Roberts , the team reached the Lobos ' 28 @-@ yard line . Needing three yards to achieve a fourth down conversion , Navy coach Paul Johnson called a time @-@ out . On the next play , Frank Divis threw his second halfback option pass of the day to Polanco , gaining six yards to keep the drive alive . Eckel , Divis , and Roberts rushed for six more plays before the drive came to a halt at the Lobos ' 5 @-@ yard line . On the final play of the drive , Midshipman kicker Geoff Blumenfeld kicked a 22 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 34 – 19 with 2 : 07 left in the game .
The Lobos gained three more first downs on their final drive , but were unable to score again before turning the ball over on downs . The Midshipmen ran one more quarterback kneel play to run out the clock , winning the game with a final score of 34 – 19 .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = Final statistics = =
Though the Lobos gained more first downs and yards on offense than the Midshipmen , their three turnovers and Navy 's extended drive in the third and fourth quarters led to the lopsided final score . The 14 @-@ minute , 26 @-@ second final drive from the Midshipmen , measured by its 26 total plays , set a record for the longest drive in a game . Prior to the contest , the NCAA had not kept a record for longest drive , but began keeping track for the 2005 edition of the record book . No drive in either college football or in the NFL has exceeded the record in terms of total plays or in time of possession since the game was played . At post @-@ game press conferences , both coaches discussed the characteristics of the drive :
I think that you have to give the defense on the other side some credit because they kept us out of the end zone and we had 26 plays . I wasn 't a lot of big plays , it was four yards , five yards . Running the clock was kinda just what the doctor ordered at that point in the game .
I 've never seen a drive like that ... In fact it wasn 't even as if we were playing bad defense . I think their average gain was 3 @.@ 6 yards ; we just couldn 't make them punt .
Midshipmen quarterback Aaron Polanco was named as the offensive Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the game , finishing the contest with 101 passing yards and 136 rushing yards , a new team bowl record for the Midshipmen . Polanco also had two receptions for 23 yards , achieving the rare feat of leading his team in rushing yards , passing yards , and receptions . Polanco finished the season with 16 touchdowns , more than any other quarterback in the nation . Additionally , Midshipmen fullback Kyle Eckel ran for 85 yards on 24 carries , becoming the Midshipmen 's fourth @-@ leading rusher of all time . Navy cornerback Vaughn Kelley had nine tackles in the game , including the forced fumble in the first quarter , and was named as the defensive MVP of the game . Navy kicker Geoff Blumenfeld exceeded analysts ' expectations by making all three of his field goal attempts during the game , and New Mexico kicker Wes Zunker missed his first extra point attempt after 46 consecutive conversions , one away from the school record .
= = Game images = =
= = Post @-@ game effects = =
The win lifted the Midshipmen 's record for that season to 10 – 2 , Navy 's second 10 @-@ win season in its history and first in 99 years . It was the first bowl game victory for the Midshipmen since the 1996 Aloha Bowl . As a result of the win , the team finished the season ranked 24th in both the Associated Press and USA Today Coaches ' Poll , the first time since 1978 that the Midshipmen finished the season ranked in any major poll . For his coaching accomplishments that year , head coach Paul Johnson was awarded the 2004 Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award . The next season , Navy played in the inaugural 2005 Poinsettia Bowl , defeating the Colorado State Rams 51 – 30 . In November 2012 , Navy accepted an invitation to Kraft Fight Hunger Bowl , the newest name for the Emerald Bowl , based on the team 's positive experiences from this game .
The Lobos ended the season with a 7 – 5 record , finishing second in the Mountain West Conference behind the Utah Utes . After undergoing surgery to repair his ACL , running back DonTrell Moore returned to compete for the 2005 New Mexico Lobos football team , becoming the sixth college player to rush for over 1 @,@ 000 yards for four straight seasons . The team finished with a 6 – 5 record in 2005 , but did not play in a bowl game .
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= Dirty Dancing =
Dirty Dancing is a 1987 American romantic drama film . Written by Eleanor Bergstein and directed by Emile Ardolino , the film stars Patrick Swayze and Jennifer Grey in the lead roles , as well as Cynthia Rhodes and Jerry Orbach .
Originally a low @-@ budget film by a new studio , Great American Films Limited Partnership , and with no major stars ( except Broadway legend Orbach in a supporting role ) , Dirty Dancing became a massive box office hit . As of 2009 , it has earned over $ 214 million worldwide . It was the first film to sell more than a million copies on home video , and the Dirty Dancing soundtrack created by Jimmy Ienner generated two multi @-@ platinum albums and multiple singles , including " ( I 've Had ) The Time of My Life " , which won both the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song , and a Grammy Award for best duet . The film 's popularity led to a 2004 prequel , Dirty Dancing : Havana Nights , as well as a stage version which has had sellout performances in Australia , Europe , and North America .
In 2011 , a Dirty Dancing remake was announced with Kenny Ortega , who choreographed the original film , as the director . However , on June 8 , 2012 , Lionsgate announced they were postponing the reboot . Citing casting reasons , the remake release was put off until 2014 at the earliest . In February 2015 , it was scheduled to be a TV movie . However , the remake was officially canceled in July 2015 .
Since 2009 , there has been a Dirty Dancing Festival in Lake Lure , North Carolina .
= = Plot = =
In the summer of 1963 , 18 year @-@ old Frances " Baby " Houseman ( Jennifer Grey ) is vacationing with her affluent family at Kellerman 's , a resort in the Catskill Mountains . Baby is the younger of two daughters , and plans to attend Mount Holyoke College to study economics in underdeveloped countries and then enter the Peace Corps . Her father , Dr. Jake Houseman ( Jerry Orbach ) , is a friend and the personal physician of Max Kellerman ( Jack Weston ) , the resort 's owner . Baby is befriended by Max 's grandson Neil ( Lonny Price ) , and develops a crush on the resort 's dance instructor , Johnny Castle ( Patrick Swayze ) . Johnny is the leader of the resort 's working @-@ class entertainment staff . Baby encounters Johnny 's cousin Billy on a walk through the resort grounds , and helps him carry watermelons to the staff quarters . The staff hold secret after @-@ hours parties in their quarters , and Baby is surprised by the " dirty dancing " they engage in . Intrigued , Baby receives a brief , impromptu dance lesson from Johnny .
After Baby discovers that Johnny 's dance partner , Penny Johnson ( Cynthia Rhodes ) , is pregnant by Robbie Gould ( Max Cantor ) , a womanizing waiter who is also dating and cheating on Baby 's older sister , Lisa ( Jane Brucker ) and several other female guests , she borrows money from her father to pay for an illegal abortion for Penny . Dr. Houseman agrees to give the money to Baby although she says she can 't tell him what it 's for . Penny eventually accepts the money , but says there is another issue . Johnny and Penny perform a weekly dance at the Sheldrake , another nearby resort . Penny will miss her performance if she goes for the abortion , and they will forfeit their salary for the season . Billy suggests that Baby fill in for her . Johnny scoffs at this , which overcomes Baby 's initial resistance . Billy and Penny insist that Johnny can teach anyone to dance . Johnny begins to teach Baby the Mambo , and the two spend several awkward practice sessions together . Baby gradually begins to improve , and a romantic attraction grows between them .
Billy takes Penny to a traveling doctor for the abortion while Baby and Johnny perform at the Sheldrake Hotel . Their performance is mostly successful , although Baby is too nervous to accomplish the dance 's climactic lift . Johnny and Baby return to Kellerman 's and find Penny in agony . Billy explains that the " doctor " turned out to be a back @-@ alley hack who caused severe damage to Penny . Baby brings her father to help Penny , but when Johnny takes responsibility for Penny , Dr. Houseman mistakenly assumes Johnny is the father . Dr. Houseman treats Penny , but is angry that Baby used his money to pay for the procedure , and he forbids Baby to associate with Johnny or his friends . Baby goes to Johnny to apologize for her father 's behavior . They dance , and afterwards have sex . Dr. Houseman tells his family they 'll be leaving early over breakfast . Lisa protests , because she wants to sing at the end @-@ of @-@ season talent show . Dr. Houseman gives in , and Baby continues to see Johnny despite her father 's warning . She pulls Johnny off the footpath when her father is nearby , and Johnny is hurt that she won 't stand up for him to her father . Robbie sees them during their argument and makes a derisive remark about " going slumming " with the staff . Johnny assaults him .
Due to his growing feelings for Baby , Johnny refused payment for sex with another Kellerman 's guest , Vivian Pressman . Vivian instead pays Robbie for sex in his cabin , which is accidentally interrupted by Lisa . When Vivian leaves the cabin the next morning , she discovers Baby leaving Johnny 's cabin after . Later in the morning over breakfast , Max and Neil Kellerman reveal to the Housemans that Moe Pressman 's wallet was stolen while he was playing a card game with other guests . Vivian accuses Johnny of the theft in a fit of her jealousy over Johnny 's rejection . Johnny is unable to provide a verifiable alibi , in order to protect his relationship with Baby . To save Johnny from being fired , Baby confesses that Johnny did not commit the theft because she was with him in his cabin that night . Johnny is cleared of the theft after it 's revealed that two elderly guests , Mr. and Mrs. Schumacher , stole Moe 's wallet along with wallets of other guests . Max fires Johnny anyway for having a fraternizing affair with Baby , which was against the rules for Kellerman 's employees . Baby and Johnny embrace and bid farewell to each other , saying they 'll never regret their affair , despite her father 's objections .
Baby and her parents watch the end @-@ of @-@ season talent show . Dr. Houseman bids farewell to Robbie , and gives him a recommendation letter for medical school . Robbie thanks Jake , willingly reveals that he got Penny pregnant and insults her and Baby , which leads Dr. Houseman to yank the letter back . Staff and guests ( including Lisa ) of Kellerman 's are singing the closing song together when the door opens and Johnny walks in . He 's returned to do the last dance of the season . Johnny utters his famous line , " Nobody puts Baby in the corner " and leads Baby onstage , interrupting the show which is already in progress . He makes a brief speech about how " Frances " has made him a better man . Baby and Johnny dance a more provocative version of their Mambo duet , and the other " dirty dancers " join in . Baby runs to Johnny and executes the elusive lift move they 'd practiced . The dirty dancers pull guests from their seats to join in the celebration . Dr. Houseman apologizes to Johnny for thinking he got Penny pregnant , and reconciles with Baby . The film ends with the entire cast dancing joyously to " ( I 've Had ) The Time of My Life " .
= = Cast = =
= = Soundtrack = =
" Note " : Actress Jane Brucker wrote the song " Hula Hana " .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Dirty Dancing is in large part based on screenwriter Eleanor Bergstein 's own childhood : she is the younger daughter of a Jewish doctor from New York , spent summers with her family in the Catskills , participated in " Dirty Dancing " competitions , and was herself called " Baby " as a girl . In 1980 , Bergstein wrote a screenplay for the Michael Douglas film , It 's My Turn . However , the producers cut an erotic dancing scene from the script , much to her dismay . She then conceived a new story , focused almost exclusively on dancing . In 1984 , she pitched the idea to MGM executive Eileen Miselle , who liked it and teamed Bergstein with producer Linda Gottlieb . They set the film in 1963 , with the character of Baby based on Bergstein 's own life , and the character of Johnny based on the stories of Michael Terrace , a dance instructor whom Bergstein met in the Catskills in 1985 while she was researching the story . She finished the script in November 1985 , but management changes at MGM put the script into turnaround , or limbo .
Bergstein then shopped the script around to other studios but was repeatedly rejected , until she brought it to Vestron Pictures , the newly formed studio division of Stamford , Connecticut , based Vestron Inc . , the leading independent home video distribution company . While honing their pitch to Vestron , Gottlieb and Bergstein chose as the film 's director Emile Ardolino , who had won the 1983 Academy Award for the documentary , He Makes Me Feel Like Dancin ' . Ardolino had never directed a feature film but was extremely passionate about the project ; he even sent a message from where he was sequestered on jury duty , insisting that he was the best choice as director . The team of Gottlieb , Bergstein , and Ardolino then presented their vision for the film to Vestron 's president , Jon Peisinger , and the company 's vice president for production , Mitchell Cannold . By the end of the meeting , Peisinger had given the project the " green light " to become Vestron 's first feature film production . The approved film was budgeted at the relatively low amount of $ 5 million , at a time when the average cost for a film was $ 12 million .
For choreographer , Bergstein chose Kenny Ortega , who had been trained by Gene Kelly . For a location , they did not find anything suitable in the Catskills ( as many of the resorts had been shut down at that point ) , so they decided on a combination of two locations : Lake Lure , North Carolina and the Mountain Lake Hotel near Roanoke , Virginia , and with careful editing made it look like all shooting was done in the same area .
= = = Casting = = =
Director Ardolino was adamant that they choose dancers who could also act , as he did not want to use the " stand @-@ in " method that had been used with Flashdance ( 1983 ) . For the female lead of Frances " Baby " Houseman , Bergstein chose the 26 @-@ year @-@ old Jennifer Grey , daughter of the Oscar @-@ winning actor and dancer Joel Grey ( e.g. , of the film Cabaret ( 1972 ) ) , who , like her father , was a trained dancer . They then sought a male lead , initially considering 20 @-@ year @-@ old Billy Zane , who had the visual look desired ( originally the Johnny character was to be Italian and have a dark exotic look ) , but initial dancing tests when he was partnered with Grey did not meet expectations . The next choice was 34 @-@ year @-@ old Patrick Swayze , who had been noticed for his roles in Grandview , U.S.A. ( 1984 ) and Red Dawn ( 1984 ) . He was a seasoned dancer , with experience from the Joffrey Ballet . The producers were thrilled with him , but his agent was opposed to the idea . However , Swayze read the script , liked the multi @-@ level character of Johnny , and took the part anyway , and Johnny was changed from being Italian to Irish . Grey was initially not happy about the choice , as she and Swayze had had difficulty getting along on Red Dawn , but when they did their dancing screen test , the chemistry between them was obvious . Bergstein described it as " breathtaking " .
Other casting choices were Broadway actor Jerry Orbach as Dr. Jake Houseman , Baby 's father ; and Jane Brucker as Lisa Houseman , her older sister . Bergstein also attempted to cast her friend , sex therapist Dr. Ruth Westheimer , to play Mrs. Schumacher , and Joel Grey as her husband . However , Westheimer backed out when she learned the role involved being a thief . The role went instead to 79 @-@ year @-@ old Paula Trueman , and Joel Grey was not cast . Another role went to Bergstein 's friend , New York radio personality " Cousin Brucie " . She initially wanted him to portray the social director but then later asked him to play the part of the magician . The role of the social director went to the then unknown Wayne Knight ( of later Seinfeld and 3rd Rock from the Sun fame ) . The part of Baby 's mother was originally given to Lynne Lipton , who is briefly visible in the beginning , when the Houseman family first pulls into Kellerman 's ( she is in the front seat for a few seconds ; her blonde hair is the only indication ) , but she became ill during the first week of shooting and was replaced by actress Kelly Bishop , who had already been cast to play Vivian Pressman , the highly sexed resort guest . Bishop moved into the role of Mrs. Houseman , and the film 's assistant choreographer Miranda Garrison took on the role of Vivian .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Dirty Dancing took place in Lake Lure , North Carolina , and Mountain Lake , Virginia . Scenes in Lake Lure were filmed at the old Boys Camp , which is now a private , residential community known as Firefly Cove . These scenes included the interior dancing scenes , Baby carrying the watermelon and practicing on the signature stairs , Johnny 's cabin , the staff cabins , the golf scene where Baby asks her father for $ 250 , and the " lift " in the water . Scenes filmed at Mountain Lake included the dining scenes , Kellerman 's Hotel , the beach games , Penny crying in the kitchen , and the Houseman family 's cabins .
The tight schedule allowed only two weeks for rehearsal and 44 days for filming , as it was already the tail end of summer . The cast stayed in the same hotel at Mountain Lake Lodge in Pembroke , Virginia and at the 1927 Lake Lure Inn & Spa in Lake Lure , N.C. Rehearsals quickly turned into disco parties involving nearly every cast member , even non @-@ dancers such as Jack Weston .
The dancing and drinking went on almost non @-@ stop and , immersed in the environment , the lead actors , Grey and Swayze , began identifying with their characters . Bergstein built upon this , encouraging the actors to improvise in their scenes . She also built the sexual tension by saying that no matter how intimate or " grinding " the dance steps , that none of the dancers were to have any other kind of physical contact with each other for the next six months .
Filming started on September 5 , 1986 but was plagued by the weather , which ranged from pouring rain to sweltering heat . The outside temperature rose to 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) , and with all the additional camera and lighting equipment needed for filming , the temperature inside could be as high as 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) . According to choreographer Kenny Ortega , on one day 10 people passed out within 25 minutes of shooting . The elderly Paula Trueman collapsed and was taken to the local emergency room to be treated for dehydration . Patrick Swayze also required a hospital visit ; insisting on doing his own stunts , he repeatedly fell off the log during the " balancing " scene and injured his knee so badly he had to have fluid drained from the swelling .
Delays in the shooting schedule pushed filming into the autumn , which required the set decorators to spray @-@ paint the autumn leaves green . The uncooperative weather then took a different turn , plunging from oppressive heat to down near 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) , causing frigid conditions for the famous swimming scene in October . The crew wore warm coats , gloves , and boots . Swayze and Grey stripped down to light summer clothing , to repeatedly dive into the cold water . Despite her character 's enjoyment , Grey later described the water as " horrifically " cold , and she might not have gone into the lake , except that she was " young and hungry " .
Relations between the two main stars varied throughout production . They had already had trouble getting along in their previous project , Red Dawn ( 1984 ) , and worked things out enough to have an extremely positive screen test , but that initial cooperation soon faded , and they were soon " facing off " before every scene . There was concern among the production staff that the animosity between the two stars would endanger the filming of the love scenes . To address this , producer Bergstein and director Ardolino forced the stars to re @-@ watch their initial screen @-@ tests — the ones with the " breathtaking " chemistry . This had the desired effect , and Swayze and Grey were able to return to the film with renewed energy and enthusiasm .
Director Ardolino encouraged the actors to improvise and often kept the cameras rolling , even if actors went " off script " . One example of this was the scene where Grey was to stand in front of Swayze with her back to him and put her arm up behind his head while he trailed his fingers down her arm ( similar to the pose seen in the movie poster ) . Though it was written as a serious and tender moment , Grey was exhausted , found the move ticklish , and could not stop giggling each time Swayze tried it , no matter how many takes Ardolino asked for . Swayze was impatient to finish the scene and found Grey 's behavior annoying . However , the producers decided the scene worked as it was and put it into the film , complete with Grey 's giggling and Swayze 's annoyed expression . It became one of the most famous scenes in the movie , turning out , as choreographer Kenny Ortega put it , " as one of the most delicate and honest moments in the film . "
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The shooting wrapped on October 27 , 1986 , both on @-@ time and on @-@ budget . No one on the team , however , liked the rough cut that was put together , and Vestron executives were convinced the film was going to be a flop . Thirty @-@ nine percent of people who viewed the film did not realize abortion was the subplot . In May 1987 , the film was screened for producer Aaron Russo . According to Vestron executive Mitchell Cannold , Russo 's reaction at the end was to say simply , " Burn the negative , and collect the insurance . "
Further disputes arose over whether a corporate sponsor could be found to promote the film . Marketers of the Clearasil acne product liked the film , seeing it as a vehicle to reach a teen target audience . However , when they learned the film contained an abortion scene , they asked for that part of the plot to be cut . As Bergstein refused , the Clearasil promotion was dropped . Consequently , Vestron promoted the film themselves and set the premiere on August 16 , 1987 . The Vestron executives had planned to release the film in theaters for a weekend , and then send it to home video , since Vestron had been in the video distribution business before film production . Considering how many people disliked the film at that point , producer Gottlieb 's recollection of her feelings at the time was , " I would have only been grateful , if when it was released , people didn 't yell at me . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received positive reviews from critics . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 72 % based on reviews from 57 critics , with a rating average of 6 @.@ 1 out of 10 .
For the film 's opening , the August 16 , 1987 edition of The New York Times published a major review , with a headline reading , " Dirty Dancing Rocks to an Innocent Beat . " The Times reviewer called the film " a metaphor for America in the summer of 1963 – orderly , prosperous , bursting with good intentions , a sort of Yiddish @-@ inflected Camelot . " Other reviews were more mixed : Gene Siskel gave the film a " marginal Thumbs Up " as he liked Jennifer Grey 's acting and development of her character , while Roger Ebert gave it " Thumbs Down " due to its " idiot plot " , calling it a " tired and relentlessly predictable story of love between kids from different backgrounds . " TIME magazine was lukewarm , saying , " If the ending of Eleanor Bergstein 's script is too neat and inspirational , the rough energy of the film 's song and dance does carry one along , past the whispered doubts of better judgment . " In a retrospective review , Jezebel 's Irin Carmon called the film " the greatest movie of all time " as " a great , brave movie for women " with " some subtle , retrospectively sharp @-@ eyed critiques of class and gender . "
The film drew adult audiences instead of the expected teens , with viewers rating the film highly . Many filmgoers , after seeing the film once , went right back into the theater to watch it a second time . Word @-@ of @-@ mouth promotion took the film to the number one position in the United States , and in 10 days it had broken the $ 10 million mark . By November , it was also achieving international fame . Within seven months of release , it had brought in $ 63 million domestically and boosted attendance in dance classes across America . It was one of the highest @-@ grossing films of 1987 , earning $ 170 million worldwide .
The film 's popularity continued to grow after its initial release . It was the number one video rental of 1988 and became the first film to sell a million copies on video . When the film was re @-@ released in 1997 , ten years after its original release , Swayze received his own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , and videos were still selling at the rate of over 40 @,@ 000 per month . As of 2005 , it was selling a million DVDs per year , with over ten million copies sold as of 2007 .
A May 2007 survey by Britain 's Sky Movies listed Dirty Dancing as number one on " Women 's most @-@ watched films " , above the Star Wars trilogy , Grease , The Sound of Music , and Pretty Woman . The film 's popularity has also caused it to be called " the Star Wars for girls . " An April 2008 article in Britain 's Daily Mail listed Dirty Dancing as number one on a list of " most romantic movie quotes ever " , for Baby 's line : " I 'm scared of walking out of this room and never feeling the rest of my whole life the way I feel when I 'm with you . "
The film 's music has also had considerable impact . The closing song , " ( I 've Had ) The Time of My Life " , has been listed as the " third most popular song played at funerals " in the UK .
= = = Awards = = =
( won ) Academy Award for Best Original Song , 1987
Golden Globe Awards , 1988 ( won ) Best Original Song
( nominated ) Best Motion Picture – Comedy / Musical
( nominated ) Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Comedy / Musical
( nominated ) Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy / Musical
Grammy Awards , 1988
( won ) Best Pop Performance by a Duo
( nominated ) Best Song written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media
Three installments of the American Film Institute 's AFI 100 Years ... series :
2002 , AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions , # 93
2004 , AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs , # 86 with the Academy Award @-@ winning song " ( I 've Had ) The Time of My Life "
2005 , AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes , # 98 for Johnny 's famous line " Nobody puts Baby in a corner "
= = Music = =
Rehearsals for the dancing , and some filming , used music from Bergstein 's personal collection of gramophone records . When it came time to select actual music for the film , Vestron chose Jimmy Ienner as music supervisor . Ienner , who had previously produced albums and songs for John Lennon and Three Dog Night , opted to stick with much of the music that had already been used during filming and obtained licenses for the songs from Bergstein 's collection . He also enlisted Swayze to sing the new song " She 's Like the Wind " . Swayze had written the song a few years earlier with Stacy Widelitz , originally intending for it to be used in the film Grandview , U.S.A. ( 1984 ) .
John Morris composed the film 's score . The lyrics for the Kellermans ' song that closes the talent show were written specifically for the film and were sung to the tune of " Annie Lisle " , a commonly used theme for school alma maters . Kenny Ortega and his assistant Miranda Garrison chose the song for the finale by going through an entire box of tapes , listening to each one . According to Ortega , literally the last tape they listened to had " The Time of My Life " , which they saw as the obvious choice . Ienner then insisted that Bill Medley and Jennifer Warnes record it . The song won the 1988 Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group , an Academy Award for Best Original Song , and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song .
The film 's soundtrack started an oldies music revival , and demand for the album caught RCA Records by surprise . According to Franke Previte , before a single had even been released , there were a million albums on back @-@ order . The Dirty Dancing album spent 18 weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 album sales charts and went platinum eleven times , selling more than 32 million copies worldwide . It spawned a follow @-@ up multi @-@ platinum album in February 1988 , entitled More Dirty Dancing .
Songs from the album which appeared on the charts included :
" ( I 've Had ) The Time of My Life " , performed by Bill Medley and Jennifer Warnes , composed by Franke Previte , John deNicola , and Donald Markowitz – this song rose to # 1 on the pop charts .
" She 's Like the Wind " , performed by lead actor Patrick Swayze , composed by Lee and Stacy Widelitz ; this song peaked at # 3 in 1988 .
" Hungry Eyes " , performed by Eric Carmen , composed by Franke Previte and John deNicola ; this song peaked at # 4 in 1988 .
" Yes " , performed by Merry Clayton , composed by Neal Cavanaugh , Terry Fryer and Tom Graf ; this song peaked # 45 in 1988 .
Additionally , the resurgence in popularity of the oldies contained in the movie led to a re @-@ release of The Contours ' single " Do You Love Me " . " Do You Love Me " was featured in the movie but was omitted from the original soundtrack ; it was included on More Dirty Dancing . Upon being re @-@ released , " Do You Love Me " became a surprise hit all over again , this time peaking at # 11 ( it originally hit # 3 back in 1962 ) .
= = Legacy = =
As for the studio , despite the film 's huge monetary success , Vestron followed it up with a series of flops and ran out of money . Vestron 's parent company , Vestron Inc . , went bankrupt in 1990 , and was bought out in January 1991 by Live Entertainment for $ 26 million . The rights to Dirty Dancing now rest with Lions Gate Entertainment , which purchased Artisan Entertainment in 2003 .
Orbach , already known as a successful Broadway actor , continued in different genres . He was the voice of the candelabrum " Lumiere " in the Disney animated film Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) , before taking on his best known role , detective Lennie Briscoe in the TV crime drama Law & Order , which he played from 1992 until his death in 2004 .
Choreographer Ortega went on to choreograph and direct other major pictures such as Newsies ( 1992 ) and starting in 2006 , the High School Musical series . He also became a director of film and television , including several episodes of Gilmore Girls , in which Dirty Dancing 's Kelly Bishop had a starring role .
Lake Lure celebrated its Dirty Dancing legacy in the 1980s with the Dirty Dancing Revue featuring the A @-@ Lure Dancers , soul singer Maurice Williams ( whose song " Stay " was featured in the film ) , and Billy Scott and the Party Prophets . Today , Lake Lure hosts the annual Dirty Dancing Festival .
Kellerman 's Hotel is the Mountain Lake Hotel , and it now offers " Dirty Dancing Weekends " .
Various images and lines from the film have worked their way into popular culture . Johnny Castle 's line , " Nobody puts Baby in a corner " , has been used in song lyrics , as the title of the " Nobody Puts Baby in a Corner " episode of the TV series Veronica Mars , and as the title of a Fall Out Boy song . " Nobody puts Baby in a corner " was also quoted in Supernatural : when Dean says the line concerning his beloved Impala and his brother Sam retorts that the line is from a Swayze movie ; Dean responds : " Swayze always gets a pass " . The line was parodied in the webcomic Looking for Group where Richard , one of the primary characters , uttered a variation involving his own name , and in Family Guy , where the scene is parodied by Baby 's parents questioning Johnny due to her youth . The feminist art group Sisters of Jam put the text " Nobody puts Baby in a corner " ( in English ) in white neon light at Umeå Bus Square ( 2008 ) and at Karlstad University ( 2012 ) .
Family Guy also parodies the scene where Baby first sees Johnny dancing with the staff . In the TV series How I Met Your Mother , Barney Stinson attempts to pass off the Dirty Dancing story as the story of his own loss of virginity because he is ashamed of his actual story ; the original " Love is Strange " scene is shown with Barney replacing Johnny .
The French film Heartbreaker ( 2010 ) pays homage to the film , as a plot detail , with some clips from the film shown and a " recreation " by the two main characters of the " lift " scene .
In the first episode of the TV series New Girl , the female lead Jess watches the film repeatedly after her break up .
= = Alternate versions = =
= = = Stage version = = =
The film was adapted for the stage in 2004 as a musical , Dirty Dancing : The Classic Story on Stage . Produced by Jacobsen Entertainment in Australia for $ 6 @.@ 5 million , it was written by Eleanor Bergstein and had the same songs as the film , plus a few extra scenes . Musical direction was by Chong Lim ( one of the composers for the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney ) , and the initial production starred Kym Valentine as Baby and Sydney Dance Company 's Josef Brown as Johnny . Although reviews were mixed , the production was a commercial success , selling over 200 @,@ 000 tickets during its six @-@ month run . It has also had sellout runs in Germany and in London 's West End , where it opened at the Aldwych Theatre on October 23 , 2006 with the highest pre @-@ sell in London history , earning £ 6 million ( $ US12 million ) . As of March 2011 , over 1 million people have seen the musical in London , selling out 6 months in advance . The original West End production closed in July 2011 after a five @-@ year run , prior to a two @-@ year national tour . The show returned to the West End at the Piccadilly Theatre and ran from July 13 , 2013 to February 22 , 2014 before resuming its tour of the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland .
A New York production was in the planning stage in 2006 , with the show first starting in other North American cities . It broke box office records in May 2007 for its first such venue , selling $ 2 million on the first day of ticket sales in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . The production opened on November 15 , 2007 at the Royal Alexandra Theatre , with an all @-@ Canadian cast , except for Monica West ( Baby Housman ) , Britta Lazenga ( Penny ) , and Al Sapienza ( Jake Housman ) . After Toronto , the musical opened in Chicago in previews on September 28 , 2008 and officially on October 19 , 2008 , running through January 17 , 2009 , followed by Boston ( February 7 – March 15 , 2009 ) and Los Angeles . No Broadway dates have been announced for the show .
An official American tour began in September 2014 at The National Theatre in Washington , DC with dates scheduled in 31 cities . Previews started August 26 and the official premier was September 2 .
= = = Tours and TV show = = =
Dirty Dancing has appeared in other forms than the stage version . In 1988 , a music tour named Dirty Dancing : Live in Concert , featuring Bill Medley and Eric Carmen , played 90 cities in three months . Also in 1988 , the CBS network launched a Dirty Dancing television series , however with none of the original cast or staff . The series was canceled after only a few episodes .
= = = Re @-@ Imagining = = =
In 2004 , a re @-@ imagining of the film was released , entitled Dirty Dancing : Havana Nights . Although neither a remake nor technically a prequel , Havana Nights showcases a similar storyline about a sheltered American teenager learning about life through dance , when her family relocates to Havana , Cuba just before the 1959 Cuban Revolution . Swayze was paid $ 5 million to appear in a cameo role as a dance teacher — considerably more than the $ 200 @,@ 000 he earned for the first film .
= = = 20th anniversary releases = = =
For the 20th anniversary in 2007 , the film was re @-@ released in theatres with additional footage , while the original film version was re @-@ released on DVD with deleted scenes , and included writer commentary . At the same time , Codemasters released Dirty Dancing : the Video Game . In the United Kingdom , the anniversary was marked by a reality TV show based on the film ; titled Dirty Dancing : The Time of Your Life , the TV show was filmed at the Mountain Lake resort .
In the UK , to mark the 20th anniversary of the film , Channel Five broadcast a special documentary called Seriously Dirty Dancing . It was presented by Dawn Porter , an investigative journalist and a self @-@ confessed Dirty Dancing addict . The documentary was very successful , being Channel Five 's highest rated documentary of 2007 . Porter visited the set of the film , met other Dirty Dancing fanatics , and learned the last dance , which she performed at the end of the documentary in front of family and friends .
= = Remake = =
In August 2011 , Lionsgate announced their plan to remake the film . It was confirmed that the studio had hired the film 's choreographer , Kenny Ortega , to direct . " We believe that the timing couldn 't be better to modernize this story on the big screen , and we are proud to have Kenny Ortega at the helm , " Joe Drake , president of Lionsgate 's Motion Picture Group , explained about the project . A miniseries version of " Dirty Dancing " had been scheduled to be shot in Western North Carolina . As of July 29 , 2015 , the miniseries has been put on hold .
In December 2015 , ABC ordered a three @-@ hour musical remake of Dirty Dancing , starring Abigail Breslin , Colt Prattes , Debra Messing , Sarah Hyland , Nicole Scherzinger , Billy Dee Williams & Shane Harper .
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= Junior Salesman =
" Junior Salesman " is the thirteenth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 189th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on January 31 , 2013 . The episode was written by Carrie Kemper and directed by David Rogers . The episode features the return of several guest stars , including Chris Diamantopoulos as Brian the boom mike operator , Michael Schur as Dwight 's cousin , Mose , Mark Proksch as Nate , and several others .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Dunder Mifflin CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) tasks Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) with finding a part @-@ time replacement for Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , and Dwight must choose among Clark ( Clark Duke ) and several of his close friends , including his cousin Mose ( Schur ) .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics , with many considering it superior to " Vandalism " , particularly for the lessened presence of Brian . " Junior Salesman " was viewed by 4 @.@ 45 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 5 % rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . Although The Office , ranked third in its timeslot , it ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Dunder Mifflin CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) has tasked Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) with finding a part @-@ time replacement for Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) is concerned about this , as Jim 's replacement will be her new " deskmate " . Clark ( Clark Duke ) feels he is ready for the position , citing his key role in the sales in " The Whale " and " Suit Warehouse " , but Dwight wants someone who he can be sure won 't team up with Pam against him . To that end , he brings in a bizarre gallery of his relatives and close friends , including his cousin Mose ( Michael Schur ) , best friend Rolf , part @-@ time private investigator Trevor , former Corporate executive Troy Undercook , and his karate teacher ( " The Fight " ) Sensei Ira . To Dwight 's horror , though , none of his candidates are competent enough to even make it through the full job interview , much less be paper salesmen . Clark ends his interview without answering any of Dwight 's questions , simply pointing out that he has no choice but to hire him if he wants someone who can do the job .
Jim calls Wallace to pitch for the CEO to invest in Athlead . Dwight puts the conversation on speaker phone , allowing him to hear Wallace first tell Jim his salary is going to be cut to reflect his part @-@ time status , and then bluntly shoot down the idea of investing in Athlead . Dwight , though praising his friends ' outlandish delinquent behavior to the cameras , gradually comes to realize his professional integrity won 't allow him to hire any of them , and sadly notes that he outgrew all of his friends in just three hours . Afraid they will hate him if he doesn 't pick one of them , he asks Jim to pretend to take over the hiring decision and make the call to hire no one . Being willing to do anything to save Pam from being stuck with an unbearable deskmate , Jim agrees . However , when Jim announces the decision , Rolf immediately intuits that Dwight is using Jim as a scapegoat . Dwight 's friends storm off to play paintball without him , later sending an e @-@ mail with a photo of their paintball outing and the message " Glad you 're not here " . Clark gets the salesman job . Pam is grateful to Jim for arranging this but says she still misses her " old deskmate " , i.e. Jim . Pam briefly lifts Dwight 's spirits by suggesting they " haze the new guy " , though she makes Dwight stop that plan when he nearly suffocates Clark with shrink wrap . It is also hinted that Brian , the boom mike operator for the documentary crew , has grown a crush on Pam .
= = Production = =
" Junior Salesman " was written by executive story editor Carrie Kemper , who is the younger sister of cast member Ellie Kemper , making it her fourth writing credit for the series , following the ninth @-@ season entry , " The Whale " . The episode was directed by series editor David Rogers , marking his eighth directing credit for the series , following the ninth season entry , " Andy 's Ancestry " . The episode features guest appearances from Matt L. Jones as Dwight 's cousin , Zeke . Jones had initially been cast for a proposed Office spin @-@ off centered on Dwight titled " The Farm " . A backdoor pilot was filmed , but upon review , the spin @-@ off was not picked up by NBC . The episode also features the first time appearance of Eric Wareheim as Gabor and Will McCormack as Wolf . In addition to new guest stars , the episode saw the return of several minor characters , including Lance Krall as Sensei Ira , Chris Gethard as Trevor , Noel Petok as Troy Underbridge , Beth Grant as Dwight 's babysitter , Melvina , and James Urbaniak as Rolf .
The press release for the episode included , " Erin tries to find her birth parents with Pete 's help " , although this plotline was completely absent from the episode . David Rogers , who is also an editor on the series , said that storyline was cut because " we had so much great comedy and needed the time for Dwight and his freaky friends and how Jim and the gang reacted " . Rogers also commented since they shoot in a documentary style , they can shoot faster than regular single @-@ camera comedies , meaning their first cut of the episodes can be 15 – 21 minutes longer than the 22 @-@ minute air length , and several scenes need to be cut .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Junior Salesman " originally aired on NBC on January 31 , 2013 , alongside the following episode , " Vandalism " . The hour @-@ long timeslot for The Office followed the one @-@ hour series finale of 30 Rock . In its original American broadcast , " Junior Salesman " was viewed by 4 @.@ 45 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 5 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , marking a slight rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Customer Loyalty " . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The Office ranked third in its timeslot , and was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night , although the hour @-@ long installment of 30 Rock received more viewers . 1 @.@ 91 million viewers watched the episode through DVR playback , bringing the total viewership to 6 @.@ 36 million .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Michael Tedder of Vulture awarded the episode — along with " Vandalism " — four stars out of five . He called it one of the " one of the silliest episodes in recent memory " , and complimented the break from the dramatic ending of " Customer Loyalty " . He also complimented the maturation of Dwight throughout the episode , calling this episode a " mile @-@ marker " for his character . He considered it superior to the succeeding episode , " Vandalism " . IGN writer Roth Cornet said the Dwight plotline yielded the " funniest and most disturbing moments of the night " , but that the episode didn 't allow for much work to be given to the rest of the ensemble cast . Cornet also went on to criticize Brian 's infatuation towards Pam and the potential " otherman " outcome for their storyline , stating that it would ultimately just be a " gimmick " . She gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , calling it " Good " . Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste considered the episode to be a build @-@ up to the " gut @-@ punch " scene between Brian and Pam in " Vandalism " , considering the only other important plot from the episode to be the Dwight @-@ Jim one . Stiernberg considered the Dwight @-@ Jim subplot to be " moderately funny " , but " predictably bizarre " . She gave the episode a seven out of ten , along with " Vandalism " .
Brett Davinger of The California Literary Review called Brian 's antics " creepy " , particularly his smile at the end of the episode . Despite this , Davinger complimented the episode for focusing on one single plot . Nick Campbell of TV.com wrote that " Junior Salesman " — along with " Vandalism " — was " so much sharper than last week 's trial in Dullsville " . Campbell also complimented the return of Michael Schur as Mose and the performances of Matt L. Jones and Brian Baumgartner . Multiple critics considered the episode superior to " Vandalism " , particularly due to their displeasure with the Brian @-@ Pam storyline , which was more prevalent in " Vandalism " .
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= Canadian Afghan detainee issue =
For a more detailed timeline of events , see Timeline of the Canadian Afghan detainee issue .
The Canadian Afghan detainee issue concerns whether or not the Government of Canada and / or the Canadian Forces ( CF ) had knowledge about alleged abusive treatment of detainees in Afghanistan . The alleged abuse occurred after Afghans were detained by Canadian Forces , and subsequently transferred to the Afghan National Army ( ANA ) or the Afghan National Directorate of Security ( NDS ) during the War in Afghanistan . The issue has sparked heated debate since Article 12 of the Third Geneva Convention ( of which Canada is a signatory ) states that " the Detaining Power [ Canada ] is responsible for the treatment given [ to prisoners of war ] " . If the allegations of torture are true it would mean Canada is guilty of war crimes .
The allegations were first sparked by University of Ottawa law professor Amir Attaran , who claimed that full versions of government documents proved Canada had willful knowledge that torture would occur before handing detainees to Afghan authorities . Subsequent to this , two official complaints have led to official investigations and hearings by the Military Police Complaints Commission ( MPCC ) . One of these unveiled parliamentary testimony by diplomat Richard Colvin , who claimed that many detainees were probably tortured , and it was a standard operating procedure for Afghan interrogators . The allegations have led to a showdown in the Canadian House of Commons , as opposition Members of Parliament ( MPs ) had called for the releasing of relevant documents in full and unredacted form , claiming parliamentary privilege to see them . The government maintained that they had a duty to protect Canadian soldiers and citizens as the documents contained sensitive information .
At the request of the Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons , a panel of former justices and selected MPs was tasked with sorting through the documents , and determining the need to release or withhold them . To date , only about 4 @,@ 000 out of the estimated 40 @,@ 000 documents have been released , A final report released in June 2012 found no wrongdoing by Canadian Forces members , but did issue recommendations related to improving military policing and MPCC access to information and witnesses . The Canadian public generally held views that there was knowledge of detainee abuse by military or government officials . The issue has also led to scrutiny on detainee treatment by other Canadian departments and the armed forces of other nations .
= = Background = =
Canada 's military involvement in Afghanistan began in 2002 with the International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) , a coalition of soldiers from 42 countries , which was tasked as a counterinsurgency effort in response to the September 11 attacks . ISAF had initially been established as a stabilization force by the United Nations Security Council on 20 December 2001 , to secure Kabul . The Canadian Liberal government at the time , under Prime Minister Jean Chrétien , chose to have the Canadian Forces ( CF ) hand over its prisoners to the United States , who led the fight against al @-@ Qaeda and other insurgents . After NATO took command of Afghanistan in 2003 , Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse at the hands of the United States armed forces in Iraq came to the attention of the public , and Canada soon faced pressure to hand their prisoners to someone else . Canada entered into an agreement with the Afghan government and started transferring detainees to Afghan security forces , which comprised the Afghan National Army ( ANA ) and the Afghan National Directorate of Security ( NDS ) .
On 18 December 2005 , then @-@ Chief of Defence Staff Rick Hillier signed an agreement between Canada 's Department of National Defence and the Government of Afghanistan . The agreement did not include any explicit right of access by Canada to Afghan detainees . Members of the opposition requested then @-@ Minister of National Defence Gordon O 'Connor to renegotiate the prisoner transfer agreement . This request was dismissed , with O 'Connor saying the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent fulfilled the duty of ensuring fair treatment of detainees and Canada could be notified and take action in any cases of abuse . However , the Red Cross stated that their mandate was being misunderstood , and it was the responsibility of Canada . It maintained that it had no role in monitoring the Canada @-@ Afghanistan detainee @-@ transfer agreement , and that following long @-@ established operating procedure , the Red Cross would not reveal to any foreign government any abuses it might find in Afghan prisons . While maintaining that detainee monitoring was the Red Cross ' duty until March 2007 , O 'Connor apologized to the House of Commons for previously misleading them on the issue . In turn , a new agreement was reached in April 2007 that allowed Canadian officials to have access to Kandahar jails .
= = History = =
= = = Initial allegations = = =
The first allegations of detainee abuse came in early February 2007 , when University of Ottawa law professor Amir Attaran produced documents he had received through an access @-@ to @-@ information request showing that three prisoners in the custody of Canadian military police were brought in by their Afghan interrogator for treatment of similar injuries to the head and upper body , all on the same day . Attaran argued this could be evidence of torture on the part of the interrogator and should be investigated . Attaran has maintained these allegations , stating in 2010 that the documents show torture of detainees was an actual tactic used to obtain information during interrogation .
In April 2007 , The Globe and Mail published interviews with 30 men who claimed they were " beaten , starved , frozen and choked after they were handed over to Afghanistan 's National Directorate of Security " by CF members . It also revealed that it had received a censored report by the Canadian government on human rights in Afghanistan through an access to information request , and it contained " negative references to acts such as torture , abuse , and extra judicial killings [ that ] were blacked out without an explanation . " This prompted intensive questioning in the House , to which O 'Connor claimed that a new agreement had been reached , saying " we have , in the last few days , entered into a local agreement in the Kandahar province to enter the detention facilities any time we want . " This would be reaffirmed by Prime Minister Stephen Harper , stating that there was " no evidence that access is blocked to the prisons " , and that Afghan authorities had agreed to " formalize that agreement so there is no potential misunderstanding . " Regardless , NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer announced that the Afghan government was to launch an inquiry about the fate of detainees . In January 2008 , it was revealed that the government ceased the detainee transfers after an internal investigation revealed allegations of a detainee being abused on 5 November 2007 .
= = = Richard Colvin testimony = = =
Allegations regarding the treatment of Afghan detainees resurfaced in November 2009 via parliamentary testimony by Richard Colvin , the second highest @-@ ranked member of Canada ’ s diplomatic service in Afghanistan from 2006 to 2007 . Colvin claimed that many detainees were probably tortured , and it was a standard operating procedure for Afghan interrogators . This would be consistent with special reports by the United Nations Human Rights Commission and the US Department of State . Colvin also said the torture involved beatings , whipping with power cables , the use of electricity , knives , open flames and rape . The Canadian government dismissed opposition calls for a public inquiry the next day . " There has not been a single , solitary proven allegation of abuse involving a transferred Taliban prisoner by Canadian forces " , Defence Minister Peter MacKay said in the House of Commons , with his parliamentary secretary suggesting Colvin was not credible .
Regardless , Colvin would provide further testimony in a hearing at the MPCC . He stated that upon visiting Kandahar province 's main prison in May 2006 , he discovered the ICRC had a " serious problem " with trying to keep track of Afghan prisoners . Officials had approached Colvin with " forceful " concerns about the lack of information given to them by Canada , causing them to lose " many , if not most — and possibly all — of our detainees , " stated Colvin . He has also presented allegations that Canadian government and military officials knew about reports of abuse and human rights violations surrounding former governor of Kandahar Asadullah Khalid , saying Canadian officials heard credible sources claiming that Khalid ran a drug network , used drugs himself , used private detention facilities , and sexually abused young girls . Colvin is not the only civil servant to indicate there was a problem about Afghan detainees . Eileen Olexiuk , another Canadian diplomat in Afghanistan , also revealed in an interview with the CBC that she had warned the government in 2005 about torture problems . She said that the government , which was under the leadership of Paul Martin at the time , ignored her advice .
= = = Subsequent allegations = = =
On 8 December 2009 , General Walter Natynczyk testified before a parliamentary committee that one particular detainee that was abused on 14 June 2006 by Afghan police was never in CF custody . Canada 's chief commander stated that although CF members had questioned the man , he was taken into custody by Afghan police , and Canadian troops rescued him when the police started beating him with their shoes . However , the general corrected himself the following day upon receiving new information that the man had in fact been in Canadian custody . This would be the first piece of evidence that Afghan detainees in Canadian custody were subsequently abused by Afghan officials , contrary to government claims that there was no such evidence . It prompted opposition MPs to recall for a public inquiry into the matter , and for Peter MacKay to be fired . Canada 's top military commander subsequently ordered an inquiry to find out why he had not been informed about this incident . This inquiry revealed many Canadian soldiers were aware that Afghan security forces beat prisoners " in the street and elsewhere " on a regular basis . A separate report to General Natynczyk also concluded that the detainee beaten in June 2006 was not defined as a Canadian detainee , preventing it from being reported up the chain of command , and that the CF and Department of Defence should “ be tasked to examine the detainee reporting process ... to develop one consolidated process for the reporting on [ Canadian Forces ] detainees . ”
The United Nations ( UN ) has released at least two reports implicating torture in Afghanistan . A report from April 2010 stated the " use of harsh interrogation techniques and forced confession of guilt by the Afghan National Police and the National Directorate of Security was documented , including the use of electric shocks and beating " , against juvenile detainees suspected of being involved in insurgency . This became concerning after a briefing note to Peter MacKay stated that many juvenile detainees were arrested by the CF , and transferred to the NDS , as per CF policy for all detainees under the age of 18 . It also stated juvenile detainees were being kept in a Canadian transfer facility in Kandahar for " a significant period . "
Another report by the UN was released in October 2011 . Interviews with 379 detainees at 47 facilities over the period of a year found “ a compelling pattern and practice of systematic torture and ill @-@ treatment ” at multiple facilities operated by the ANP and NDS , after 46 % of the detainees it spoke with indicated it occurred . A written statement by the Afghan government denied the ' systematic ' nature of torture and claimed the report was exaggerated , although it admitted to deficiencies due to a lack of training and resources . The report also suggested that detainees handed over by the CF received different treatment , with one case citing a man who stated everyone was treated badly unless they were handled by Canadians .
= = = Investigations and inquiries = = =
While the first specific allegations of abuse surfaced more than three years ago , there has been no official public inquiry . MPs in the House of Commons voted 146 to 129 in favour of a motion to set one up , but the Prime Minister has refused to consider it , stating that " the government of Canada has taken all necessary actions in all instances where there is proof of abuse of Afghan prisoners . " Some critics and the Speaker of the House of Commons have also scolded both the government and opposition MPs for using the issue for political gain . Opposition MPs have stated that it should not be left to the military to investigate itself through the MPCC .
To date , there have been two main investigations conducted by the MPCC in relation to Afghan detainees . The first was launched on 9 February 2007 after a formal complaint by Amir Attaran regarding the treatment of three specific detainees arrested in Kandahar region in April 2006 . The findings from this investigation stated that CF members handled the detainees appropriately , and were given medical treatment . However , the MPCC also found that the CF failed to conduct an investigation into how one of the detainees became injured , contrary to normal direction .
The second investigation was launched on 26 February 2007 , following a joint complaint between Amnesty International Canada and the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association , alleging CF military police transferred detainees while there was enough evidence to suggest they would be tortured on at least 18 occasions . The investigation was moved to a public hearing process on 12 March 2008 , mainly due to " delays and difficulties in obtaining relevant documents and information from government authorities . " This triggered legal challenges from the federal government over the MPCC 's jurisdiction to investigate such complaints , resulting in a ruling that the MPCC had no jurisdiction over " transfer complaints " , but it did over " failure to investigate " complaints . During substantial testimony and hearings throughout 2010 , the government engaged the MPCC another three times for judicial review of the MPCC findings , including the testimony of Richard Colvin . A judge dismissed these challenges in September 2011 .
The MPCC released its report on June 27 , 2012 . No wrongdoing was found against specific Canadian Forces members , but the report " identified serious problems regarding reporting , accountability and information sharing . " Four recommendations were made in the report to specifically improve the work of Canadian Forces Military Police that are deployed on missions , as well as improving document disclosure and witness access during MPCC hearings .
= = Dispute over documents and parliamentary committees = =
= = = Beginning of calls and prorogation = = =
Opposition MPs in the House of Commons began calling for all documents the government possessed regarding the detainee issue to be made public since Richard Colvin ’ s testimony in November 2009 . Minister of Foreign Affairs Lawrence Cannon assured the House of Commons that the documents would be handed over to a special committee in charge of looking into the issue . " There 's a mandatory obligation on public officials to ensure that when information is released that it is in compliance with the Canada Evidence Act [ to avoid security risks ] , " according to Minister of Defence Peter MacKay . However , opposition MPs and other critics stated that this was an absurd argument , as Parliament has the constitutional right to have access to the documents uncensored . On 10 December 2009 , the House of Commons passed a motion requiring the release of unredacted documents concerning the Afghan detainees to the committee hearing the issue . However , the government refused to abide by the motion . Critics repeated that the government was violating the Constitution of Canada and will be in contempt of Parliament if it continued to refuse to release uncensored documents regarding the Afghan detainee issue .
On 30 December 2009 , Parliament was put on hold , or ' prorogued ' at the request of the Prime Minister . According to his spokesman , he sought this prorogation to consult with Canadians about the economy . The move caused cries from opposition MPs who labelled it as an attempt to " muzzle parliamentarians amid controversy over the Afghan detainees affair . " Prorogation prevented the parliamentary committee from continuing to probe the issue . Although informal committee meetings continued , they had no power to compel testimony or grant immunity , and Conservative MPs would not be represented .
= = = Parliament resumes and 2010 release = = =
Justice Minister Rob Nicholson announced to the House of Commons on 5 March 2010 that former Supreme Court of Canada judge Frank Iacobucci was appointed to advise Nicholson if any " injurious " effects would result from making the Afghan detainee documents public . However , University of Ottawa law professor Amir Attaran pointed out that Iacobucci was not a sitting judge and therefore had no power except to give lawyer advice to Nicholson . The opposition expressed deep disappointment with the decision , saying that they did not doubt the competence of the former justice , but believed that it was nothing more than another way to delay the issue . While parliamentarians were not given the Terms of Reference posed to Iacobucci immediately , they were released on 13 March 2010 .
The government finally released thousands of documents to MPs at the end of March 2010 . The documents immediately drew fierce criticism by the opposition , because they were still heavily redacted , and the " totally incoherent and totally disorderly " fashion of handing them out in a single copy and only in English ( instead of both of Canada 's official languages ) . The government maintained that redactions are required to protect Canada , with Justice Minister Rob Nicholson stating they were done by " non @-@ partisan public servants whose only interest is the protection of national security . "
= = = Speaker 's question and ruling = = =
On 18 March , the three opposition parties united in a bid to force the government to let them look at uncensored documents on the Afghan detainees affair or face parliamentary contempt proceedings . Specifically , they called on the Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons , Peter Milliken to rule that the government violated collective parliamentary privilege # 5 in refusing to hand over uncensored documents on the transfer of Afghan detainees . MPs have claimed that the request from Parliament was based on " 340 years of bedrock constitutional history " , and that there are systems in place to decide what is and is not appropriate to release to the public . Referring to those " systems , " Reg Whitaker noted that members of the " Military Police Complaints Commission , whose investigation of the Afghan detainee issue actually led to the calling of the parliamentary inquiry ... are [ already ] fully security cleared [ to see the unredacted documents ] . "
The Speaker first asked for comments from government and opposition MPs on the matter , including Peter MacKay , Rob Nicholson , Derek Lee , Jack Harris , Tom Lukiwski , and Jim Abbott . After considering the matter for two weeks , the Speaker ruled on 27 April 2010 that Parliament had a right to ask for uncensored documents . He asked that all House leaders , ministers and MPs to come to a collective solution " without compromising the security and confidentiality contained . " The Speaker gave the House until 11 May 2010 to find a common ground . While MPs within the negotiations had to ask The Speaker for an extension of the deadline , it was granted until 14 May , and a deal was reached that morning . A Memorandum of Understanding on the particulars was not established until 16 June , when it was actually tabled in the House of Commons . It was still not agreed to by all political parties : The New Democratic Party refused to endorse the deal .
= = = Panel work and 2011 release = = =
A panel of MPs began the task of going through over 40 @,@ 000 documents related to Afghan detainees on 10 July 2010 . The MPs , consisting of one member and one alternate from the Liberal , Conservative and Bloc parties , determines what is relevant to the allegations of abuse . An independent panel of jurists determines how documents will be released publicly , in some cases censoring documents that may threaten national security , international relations , or soldiers in Afghanistan . This panel consists of Frank Iacobucci , fellow former Supreme Court justice Claire L 'Heureux @-@ Dubé and former B.C. Supreme Court judge Donald Brenner . Any documents that the government claims to contain legal advice may force the panel to determine whether to allow the MPs to see them .
Approximately 4 @,@ 000 documents were released by the government on 22 June 2011 , almost a year after the panel began its work . Foreign Affairs Minister John Baird stated that the process had come to an end , " and accusations of improper conduct are unfounded . " However , there are an estimated 36 @,@ 000 pages still remaining that have not been released in a less @-@ redacted form . Based on the documents that were released , MP Stéphane Dion implied that they were cause for concern , and " The likelihood is very high " that a detainee was abused while in the custody of Afghan authorities . " I don 't think Canadians will accept that it 's over , " he added .
= = Related abuse allegations = =
= = = Canada = = =
In March 2010 , the Canadian Press reported that documents filed with the MPCC showed that the Canadian Security Intelligence Service ( CSIS ) had started playing a role in the interrogation of Afghans captured by the CF . Sources say the military 's decision to hand captives over to the NDS was sometimes based on the recommendations of CSIS interrogators , but Canadian military officials always delivered the final decision . This prompted CSIS to undertake a review of its dealings with Afghan detainees “ to ensure that the Service can ... account for its engagement during this period . " Briefing notes to CSIS director Dick Fadden state that the service interrogated up to 50 prisoners ( between 2002 through late 2007 according to an assistant director with the service ) , but insists that they were treated properly . The notes also state " CSIS officers have been serving alongside the Canadian Forces " while armed , and affirms that agents had no role in determining whether prisoners should be transferred to Afghan authorities .
It is believed that initial investigations into the treatment of Afghan detainees sparked investigations into Canada 's elite military unit , Joint Task Force 2 ( JTF2 ) . The first investigation , named Sand Trap , examined allegations that a JTF2 member was involved in the 2006 shooting death of an Afghan who was surrendering . No charges were laid at the conclusion of the investigation . However , a larger investigation called Sand Trap II began hearing from witnesses in May 2009 regarding allegations of JTF2 members witnessing United States armed forces killing an unarmed man . This investigation is still being conducted by the Canadian Forces National Investigation Service , and it has led to calls for civilian oversight of JTF2 .
= = = International = = =
There are also allegations that the NDS tortured detainees handed over to them by British soldiers in Afghanistan . Allegations were also made that British Armed Forces have received evidence of this torture , and NATO " has buried its head in the sand while torture has continued , and it 's known about it . " The British High Court of Justice ruled on 25 June 2010 that there was " a possibility of torture and serious mistreatment ” of prisoners . It is now illegal for British troops to hand over detainees to the NDS in Kabul , however The High Court still approved of transfers in Kandahar and Helmand provinces . This was on the condition that government and military officials improved its systems for monitoring detainees , in order to avoid " a real risk of torture or serious mistreatment . ”
On 6 September 2011 , it was revealed that NATO had suspended transfers of detainees to several Afghan prisons . The move was prompted by a United Nations report , published a few days later , which described “ a compelling pattern and practice of systematic torture and ill @-@ treatment ” at a number of facilities run by the NDS and Afghan police . NATO stated it would undertake verification on the claims , and be " prudent " in halting transfers until that time .
= = Public opinion = =
An EKOS poll conducted in December 2009 revealed that 83 % of the respondents believed the government knew Afghan detainees were tortured . This was a consistent result across all age groups , genders and geographic locations . It also concluded that 41 % of respondents were dissatisfied with the governments transparency on the issue , and only 24 % were satisfied . The remaining 35 % were still undecided or had no opinion . As time progressed , 61 % of Canadians still believed Afghan detainees were tortured in May 2010 , according to an Ipsos @-@ Reid poll . This poll also found that 52 % of respondents believed that Stephen Harper and Canadian soldiers knew torture was occurring , and 75 % believed senior military officials would have known about the problem . A poll done by Angus Reid during 5 January and 6 , found that 38 per cent of Canadians believed that Harper used the 30 December 2009 prorogation to curtail the Canadian Afghan detainee issue .
= = = Videos = = =
Government under attack over Afghan detainee abuse allegations ( April 2007 video compilation of Parliamentary debates )
Canada 's pro @-@ democracy movement ( includes footage of Colvin ) Produced by Jesse Freeston , 29 January 2010 ; Publisher : The Real News ( duration : 10 : 36 )
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= Kolkata =
Kolkata / koʊlˈkɑːtɑː / ( Bengali : কলকাতা ) formerly Calcutta / kælˈkʌtə / ( Bengali : ক ্ যালকাটা ) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal . Located on the east bank of the Hooghly River , it is the principal commercial , cultural , and educational centre of East India , while the Port of Kolkata is India 's oldest operating port and its sole major riverine port . In 2011 , the city had population of 4 @.@ 5 million , while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14 @.@ 1 million , making it the third @-@ most populous metropolitan area in India . In 2008 its gross domestic product ( adjusted for purchasing power parity ) was estimated to be US $ 104 billion , which was the third highest among Indian cities , behind Mumbai and Delhi . As a growing city in a developing country , Kolkata has pollution , traffic congestion , poverty , overcrowding , and other problems .
In the late 17th century , the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty . After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690 , the area was developed by the Company into an increasingly fortified trading post . Nawab Siraj ud @-@ Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756 , and the East India Company retook it the following year . In 1793 the East India company was strong enough to abolish Nizamat ( local rule ) , and assumed full sovereignty of the region . Under the company rule , and later under the British Raj , Calcutta served as the capital of British @-@ held territories in India until 1911 , when its perceived geographical disadvantages , combined with growing nationalism in Bengal , led to a shift of the capital to New Delhi . Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement ; it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics . Following Indian independence in 1947 , Kolkata , which was once the centre of modern Indian education , science , culture , and politics , suffered several decades of economic stagnation .
As a nucleus of the 19th- and early 20th @-@ century Bengal Renaissance and a religiously and ethnically diverse centre of culture in Bengal and India , Kolkata has local traditions in drama , art , film , theatre , and literature . Many people from Kolkata — among them several Nobel laureates — have contributed to the arts , the sciences , and other areas . Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close @-@ knit neighbourhoods ( paras ) and freestyle intellectual exchanges ( adda ) . West Bengal 's share of the Bengali film industry is based in the city , which also hosts venerable cultural institutions of national importance , such as the Academy of Fine Arts , the Victoria Memorial , the Asiatic Society , the Indian Museum and the National Library of India . Among professional scientific institutions , Kolkata hosts the Agri Horticultural Society of India , the Geological Survey of India , the Botanical Survey of India , the Calcutta Mathematical Society , the Indian Science Congress Association , the Zoological Survey of India , the Institution of Engineers , the Anthropological Survey of India and the Indian Public Health Association . Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises , Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football and other sports .
= = Etymology = =
The word Kolkata derives from the Bengali term Kôlikata ( Bengali : কলিকাতা ) [ ˈkɔlikat ̪ a ] , the name of one of three villages that predated the arrival of the British , in the area where the city eventually was to be established ; the other two villages were Sutanuti and Govindapur .
There are several explanations about the etymology of this name :
The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô [ ˈkalikʰːet ̪ rɔ ] ( Bengali : কালীক ্ ষেত ্ র ) , meaning " Field of [ the goddess ] Kali " . Similarly , it can be a variation of ' Kalikshetra ' ( Sanskrit : कालीक ् षेत ् र , lit. area of Goddess Kali " ) .
Alternatively , the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila ( Bengali : কিলকিলা ) , or " flat area " .
The name may have its origin in the words khal [ ˈkʰal ] ( Bengali : খাল ) meaning " canal " , followed by kaṭa [ ˈkata ] ( Bengali : কাটা ) , which may mean " dug " .
According to another theory , the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun [ ˈkɔlitɕun ] ( Bengali : কলি চুন ) and coir or kata [ ˈkat ̪ a ] ( Bengali : কাতা ) ; hence , it was called Kolikata [ ˈkɔlikat ̪ a ] ( Bengali : কলিকাতা ) .
Although the city 's name has always been pronounced Kolkata [ ˈkolkat ̪ a ] ( Bengali : কলকাতা ) or Kôlikata [ ˈkɔlikat ̪ a ] ( Bengali : কলিকাতা ) in Bengali , the anglicised form Calcutta was the official name until 2001 , when it was changed to Kolkata in order to match Bengali pronunciation .
= = History = =
The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh , 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) north of Kolkata , provide evidence that the region in which the city stands has been inhabited for over two millennia . Kolkata 's recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company , which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal . Job Charnock , an administrator who worked for the Company , was formerly credited as the founder of the city ; In response to a public petition , the Calcutta High Court ruled in 2003 that the city does not have a founder . The area occupied by the present @-@ day city encompassed three villages : Kalikata , Gobindapur , and Sutanuti . Kalikata was a fishing village ; Sutanuti was a riverside weavers ' village . They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor ; the jagirdari ( a land grant bestowed by a king on his noblemen ) taxation rights to the villages were held by the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family of landowners , or zamindars . These rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698 .
In 1712 , the British completed the construction of Fort William , located on the east bank of the Hooghly River to protect their trading factory . Facing frequent skirmishes with French forces , the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756 . The Nawab of Bengal , Siraj ud @-@ Daulah , condemned the militarisation and tax evasion by the company . His warning went unheeded , and the Nawab attacked ; he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta . A force of Company soldiers ( sepoys ) and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year . Per the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad following the battle of Buxar , East India company was appointed imperial tax collector of the Mughal emperor in the province of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa , while Mughal @-@ appointed Nawabs continued to rule the province . Declared a presidency city , Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772 . In 1793 , ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took complete control of the city and the province . In the early 19th century , the marshes surrounding the city were drained ; the government area was laid out along the banks of the Hooghly River . Richard Wellesley , Governor @-@ General of the Presidency of Fort William between 1797 and 1805 , was largely responsible for the development of the city and its public architecture . Throughout the late 18th and 19th century , the city was a centre of the East India Company 's opium trade .
By the 1850s , Calcutta had two areas : White Town , which was primarily British and centred on Chowringhee and Dalhousie Square ; and Black Town , mainly Indian and centred on North Calcutta . The city underwent rapid industrial growth starting in the early 1850s , especially in the textile and jute industries ; this encouraged British companies to massively invest in infrastructure projects , which included telegraph connections and Howrah railway station . The coalescence of British and Indian culture resulted in the emergence of a new babu class of urbane Indians , whose members were often bureaucrats , professionals , newspaper readers , and Anglophiles ; they usually belonged to upper @-@ caste Hindu communities . In the 19th century , the Bengal Renaissance brought about an increased sociocultural sophistication among city denizens . In 1883 , Calcutta was host to the first national conference of the Indian National Association , the first avowed nationalist organisation in India .
The British moved the capital to New Delhi in 1911 . Calcutta continued to be a centre for revolutionary organisations associated with the Indian independence movement . The city and its port were bombed several times by the Japanese between 1942 and 1944 , during World War II . Coinciding with the war , millions starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943 due to a combination of military , administrative , and natural factors . Demands for the creation of a Muslim state led in 1946 to an episode of communal violence that killed over 4 @,@ 000 . The partition of India led to further clashes and a demographic shift — many Muslims left for East Pakistan ( present day Bangladesh ) , while hundreds of thousands of Hindus fled into the city .
During the 1960s and 1970s , severe power shortages , strikes , and a violent Marxist – Maoist movement by groups known as the Naxalites damaged much of the city 's infrastructure , resulting in economic stagnation . The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 led to a massive influx of thousands of refugees , many of them penniless , that strained Kolkata 's infrastructure . During the mid @-@ 1980s , Mumbai ( then called Bombay ) overtook Kolkata as India 's most populous city . In 1985 , prime minister Rajiv Gandhi dubbed Kolkata a " dying city " in light of its socio @-@ political woes . In the period 1977 – 2011 , West Bengal was governed from Kolkata by the Left Front , which was dominated by the Communist Party of India ( CPM ) . It was the world 's longest @-@ serving democratically elected communist government , during which Kolkata was a key base for Indian communism . In the West Bengal Legislative Assembly election , 2011 , Left Front was defeated by the Trinamool Congress . The city 's economic recovery gathered momentum after the 1990s , when India began to institute pro @-@ market reforms . Since 2000 , the information technology ( IT ) services sector has revitalised Kolkata 's stagnant economy . The city is also experiencing marked growth in its manufacturing base .
= = Geography = =
Spread roughly north – south along the east bank of the Hooghly River , Kolkata sits within the lower Ganges Delta of eastern India ; the city 's elevation is 1 @.@ 5 – 9 m ( 5 – 30 ft ) . Much of the city was originally a wetland that was reclaimed over the decades to accommodate a burgeoning population . The remaining undeveloped areas , known as the East Kolkata Wetlands , were designated a " wetland of international importance " by the Ramsar Convention ( 1975 ) . As with most of the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plain , the soil and water are predominantly alluvial in origin . Kolkata is located over the " Bengal basin " , a pericratonic tertiary basin . Bengal basin comprises three structural units : shelf or platform in the west ; central hinge or shelf / slope break ; and deep basinal part in the east and southeast . Kolkata is located atop the western part of the hinge zone which is about 25 km ( 16 mi ) wide at a depth of about 45 @,@ 000 m ( 148 @,@ 000 ft ) below the surface . The shelf and hinge zones have many faults , among them some are active . Total thickness of sediment below Kolkata is nearly 7 @,@ 500 m ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) above the crystalline basement ; of these the top 350 – 450 m ( 1 @,@ 150 – 1 @,@ 480 ft ) is quaternary , followed by 4 @,@ 500 – 5 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 760 – 18 @,@ 040 ft ) of tertiary sediments , 500 – 700 m ( 1 @,@ 640 – 2 @,@ 300 ft ) trap wash of cretaceous trap and 600 – 800 m ( 1 @,@ 970 – 2 @,@ 620 ft ) permian @-@ carboniferous Gondwana rocks . The quaternary sediments consist of clay , silt , and several grades of sand and gravel . These sediments are sandwiched between two clay beds : the lower one at a depth of 250 – 650 m ( 820 – 2 @,@ 130 ft ) ; the upper one 10 – 40 m ( 30 – 130 ft ) in thickness . According to the Bureau of Indian Standards , on a scale ranging from I to V in order of increasing susceptibility to earthquakes , the city lies inside seismic zone III .
= = = Urban structure = = =
The Kolkata metropolitan area is spread over 1 @,@ 886 @.@ 67 km2 ( 728 @.@ 45 sq mi ) and comprises 3 municipal corporations ( including Kolkata Municipal Corporation ) , 39 local municipalities and 24 panchayat samitis , as of 2011 . The urban agglomeration encompassed 72 cities and 527 towns and villages , as of 2006 . Suburban areas in the Kolkata metropolitan area incorporate parts of the following districts : North 24 Parganas , South 24 Parganas , Howrah , Hooghly , and Nadia . Kolkata , which is under the jurisdiction of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation ( KMC ) , has an area of 185 km2 ( 71 sq mi ) . The east – west dimension of the city is comparatively narrow , stretching from the Hooghly River in the west to roughly the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass in the east — a span of 9 – 10 km ( 5 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . The north – south distance is greater , and its axis is used to section the city into North , Central , and South Kolkata .
North Kolkata is the oldest part of the city . Characterised by 19th @-@ century architecture , dilapidated buildings , overpopulated slums , crowded bazaars and narrow alleyways , it includes areas such as Shyambazar , Hatibagan , Maniktala , Kankurgachi , Rajabazar , Shobhabazar , Shyampukur , Sonagachi , Kumortuli , Bagbazar , Jorasanko , Chitpur , Pathuriaghata , Cossipore , Sinthee , Belgachia , Jorabagan , and Dum Dum . The northern suburban areas like Baranagar , Noapara , Dunlop , Dakshineswar , Nagerbazar , Belghoria , Sodepur , Madhyamgram , Kestopur , Birati , Khardah up to Barrackpur are also within the city of Kolkata ( as a metropolitan structure ) .
Central Kolkata hosts the central business district . It contains B. B. D. Bagh , formerly known as Dalhousie Square , and the Esplanade on its east ; Strand Road is on its west . The West Bengal Secretariat , General Post Office , Reserve Bank of India , High Court , Lalbazar Police Headquarters , and several other government and private offices are located there . Another business hub is the area south of Park Street , which comprises thoroughfares such as Jawaharlal Nehru Road , Camac Street , Wood Street , Loudon Street , Shakespeare Sarani , and A. J. C. Bose Road . The Maidan is a large open field in the heart of the city that has been called the " lungs of Kolkata " and accommodates sporting events and public meetings . The Victoria Memorial and Kolkata Race Course are located at the southern end of the Maidan . Other important areas of Central Kolkata are Burrabazar , College Street , Sealdah , Taltala , Janbazar , Bowbazar , Entally , Chandni Chowk , Lalbazar , Chowringhee , Dharmatala , Tiretta Bazar , Bow Barracks , Mullick Bazar , Park Circus , Babughat etc . Among the other parks are Central Park in Bidhannagar and Millennium Park on Strand Road , along the Hooghly River .
East Kolkata is largely composed of newly developed areas and neighbourhoods of Saltlake , Rajarhat , Tangra , Beliaghata , Ultadanga , Phoolbagan etc . Two planned townships in the greater Kolkata region are Bidhannagar , also known as Salt Lake City and located north @-@ east of the city ; and Rajarhat , also called New Town and sited east of Bidhannagar . In the 2000s , Sector V in Bidhannagar developed into a business hub for information technology and telecommunication companies . Both Bidhannagar and New Town are situated outside the Kolkata Municipal Corporation limits , in their own municipalities .
South Kolkata developed after India gained independence in 1947 ; it includes upscale neighbourhoods such as Ballygunge , Alipore , New Alipore , Lansdowne , Bhowanipore , Kalighat , Dhakuria , Gariahat , Tollygunge , Naktala , Jodhpur Park , Lake Gardens , Golf Green , Jadavpur , Haltu , Nandi Bagan , Picnic Garden , Topsia , Santoshpur and Kasba . Outlying areas of South Kolkata include Garden Reach , Khidirpur , Metiabruz , Taratala , Maheshtala , Budge Budge , Behala , Sarsuna , Barisha , Parnasree Pally , Thakurpukur , Kudghat , Ranikuthi , Bansdroni , Baghajatin , Tiljala and Garia . The southern suburban areas like Narendrapur , Sonarpur , Baruipur are also within the city of Kolkata ( as metropolitan structure ) . Fort William , on the western part of the city , houses the headquarters of the Eastern Command of the Indian Army ; its premises are under the jurisdiction of the army .
= = Climate = =
Kolkata is subject to a tropical wet @-@ and @-@ dry climate that is designated Aw under the Köppen climate classification . According to a United Nations Development Programme report , its wind and cyclone zone is " very high damage risk " .
= = = Temperature = = =
The annual mean temperature is 26 @.@ 8 ° C ( 80 @.@ 2 ° F ) ; monthly mean temperatures are 19 – 30 ° C ( 66 – 86 ° F ) . Summers ( March – June ) are hot and humid , with temperatures in the low 30s Celsius ; during dry spells , maximum temperatures often exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) in May and June . Winter lasts for roughly two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , with seasonal lows dipping to 9 – 11 ° C ( 48 – 52 ° F ) in December and January . May is the hottest month , with daily temperatures ranging from 27 – 37 ° C ( 81 – 99 ° F ) ; January , the coldest month , has temperatures varying from 12 – 23 ° C ( 54 – 73 ° F ) . The highest recorded temperature is 43 @.@ 9 ° C ( 111 @.@ 0 ° F ) , and the lowest is 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . The winter is mild and very comfortable weather pertains over the city throughout this season . Often , in April – June , the city is struck by heavy rains or dusty squalls that are followed by thunderstorms or hailstorms , bringing cooling relief from the prevailing humidity . These thunderstorms are convective in nature , and are known locally as kal bôishakhi ( কালবৈশাখী ) , or " Nor 'westers " in English .
= = = Rainfall = = =
Rains brought by the Bay of Bengal branch of the south @-@ west summer monsoon lash Kolkata between June and September , supplying it with most of its annual rainfall of 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 71 in ) . The highest monthly rainfall total occurs in July and August . The city receives 2 @,@ 528 hours of sunshine per year , with maximum sunlight exposure occurring in March . Kolkata has been hit by several cyclones ; these include systems occurring in 1737 and 1864 that killed thousands .
= = = Environmental Issues = = =
Pollution is a major concern in Kolkata . As of 2008 , sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide annual concentration were within the national ambient air quality standards of India , but respirable suspended particulate matter levels were high , and on an increasing trend for five consecutive years , causing smog and haze . Severe air pollution in the city has caused a rise in pollution @-@ related respiratory ailments , such as lung cancer .
= = Economy = =
Kolkata is the main commercial and financial hub of East and North @-@ East India and home to the Calcutta Stock Exchange . It is a major commercial and military port , and is the only city in eastern India to have an international airport . Once India 's leading city , Kolkata experienced a steady economic decline in the decades following India 's independence due to steep population increases and a rise in militant trade @-@ unionism , which included frequent strikes that were backed by left @-@ wing parties . From the 1960s to the late 1990s , several factories were closed and businesses relocated . The lack of capital and resources added to the depressed state of the city 's economy and gave rise to an unwelcome sobriquet : the " dying city " . The city 's fortunes improved after the Indian economy was liberalised in the 1990s and changes in economic policy were enacted by the West Bengal state government .
Flexible production has been the norm in Kolkata , which has an informal sector that employs more than 40 % of the labour force . One unorganised group , roadside hawkers , generated business worth ₹ 8 @,@ 772 crore ( US $ 2 billion ) in 2005 . As of 2001 , around 0 @.@ 81 % of the city 's workforce was employed in the primary sector ( agriculture , forestry , mining , etc . ) ; 15 @.@ 49 % worked in the secondary sector ( industrial and manufacturing ) ; and 83 @.@ 69 % worked in the tertiary sector ( service industries ) . As of 2003 , the majority of households in slums were engaged in occupations belonging to the informal sector ; 36 @.@ 5 % were involved in servicing the urban middle class ( as maids , drivers , etc . ) , and 22 @.@ 2 % were casual labourers . About 34 % of the available labour force in Kolkata slums were unemployed . According to one estimate , almost a quarter of the population live on less than 27 rupees ( equivalent to 45 US cents ) per day . As in many other Indian cities , information technology became a high @-@ growth sector in Kolkata starting in the late 1990s ; the city 's IT sector grew at 70 % per annum — a rate that was twice the national average . The 2000s saw a surge of investments in the real estate , infrastructure , retail , and hospitality sectors ; several large shopping malls and hotels were launched . As of 2010 , Kolkata , with an estimated gross domestic product ( GDP ) by purchasing power parity of 150 billion dollars , ranked third among South Asian cities , after Mumbai and Delhi . Kolkata 's GDP in 2014 was Rs 1 @.@ 84 trillion , according to a collaborative assessment by multiple universities and climate agencies .
Kolkata is home to many industrial units operated by large public- and private @-@ sector corporations ; major sectors include steel , heavy engineering , mining , minerals , cement , pharmaceuticals , food processing , agriculture , electronics , textiles , and jute . ITC Limited , Coal India Limited , National Insurance Company , Exide Industries and Britannia Industries rank among the companies headquartered in the city . The Tea Board of India and the Ordnance Factories Board of the Ministry of Defence are also headquartered in the city . Kolkata hosts the headquarters of three major public @-@ sector banks : Allahabad Bank , UCO Bank , and the United Bank of India . Adoption of the " Look East " policy by the Indian government ; opening of Sikkim 's Nathu La mountain pass , which is located on the border between India and China , to bi @-@ directional international trade ; and the interest shown by South @-@ East Asian countries in expanding into Indian markets are factors that could benefit Kolkata .
= = Demographics = =
The demonym for residents of Kolkata are Calcuttan and Kolkatan . According to provisional results of the 2011 national census , Kolkata district , which occupies an area of 185 km2 ( 71 sq mi ) , had a population of 4 @,@ 486 @,@ 679 ; its population density was 24 @,@ 252 / km2 ( 62 @,@ 810 / sq mi ) . This represents a decline of 1 @.@ 88 % during the decade 2001 – 11 . The sex ratio is 899 females per 1000 males — lower than the national average . The ratio is depressed by the influx of working males from surrounding rural areas , from the rest of West Bengal , and from neighbouring states , mainly Bihar , Uttar Pradesh , and Orissa ; these men commonly leave their families behind . Kolkata 's literacy rate of 87 @.@ 14 % exceeds the all @-@ India average of 74 % . The final population totals of census 2011 stated the population of city as 4 @,@ 496 @,@ 694 . The urban agglomeration had a population of 14 @,@ 112 @,@ 536 in 2011 .
Bengali Hindus form the majority of Kolkata 's population ; Marwaris , Biharis and Muslims compose large minorities . Among Kolkata 's smaller communities are Chinese , Tamils , Nepalis , Odias , Telugus , Assamese , Gujaratis , Anglo @-@ Indians , Armenians , Greeks , Tibetans , Maharashtrians , Konkanis , Malayalees , Punjabis , and Parsis . The number of Armenians , Greeks , Jews , and other foreign @-@ origin groups declined during the 20th century . The Jewish population of Kolkata was 5 @,@ 000 during World War II , but declined after Indian independence and the establishment of Israel ; by 2013 , there were 25 Jews in the city . India 's sole Chinatown is in eastern Kolkata ; once home to 20 @,@ 000 ethnic Chinese , its population dropped to around 2 @,@ 000 as of 2009 as a result of multiple factors including repatriation and denial of Indian citizenship following the 1962 Sino @-@ Indian War , and immigration to foreign countries for better economic opportunities . The Chinese community traditionally worked in the local tanning industry and ran Chinese restaurants .
Bengali , the official state language , is the dominant language in Kolkata . English is also used , particularly by the white @-@ collar workforce . Hindi and Urdu are spoken by a sizeable minority . According to the 2011 census , 76 @.@ 51 % of the population is Hindu , 20 @.@ 60 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 88 % Christian , and 0 @.@ 47 % Jain . The remainder of the population includes Sikhs , Buddhists , and other religions which accounts for 0 @.@ 45 % of the population ; 1 @.@ 09 % did not state a religion in the census . Kolkata reported 67 @.@ 6 % of Special and Local Laws crimes registered in 35 large Indian cities during 2004 . The Kolkata police district registered 15 @,@ 510 Indian Penal Code cases in 2010 , the 8th @-@ highest total in the country . In 2010 , the crime rate was 117 @.@ 3 per 100 @,@ 000 , below the national rate of 187 @.@ 6 ; it was the lowest rate among India 's largest cities .
As of 2003 , about one @-@ third of the population , or 1 @.@ 5 million people , lived in 3 @,@ 500 unregistered squatter @-@ occupied and 2 @,@ 011 registered slums . The authorised slums ( with access to basic services like water , latrines , trash removal by the Kolkata Municipal Corporation ) can be broadly divided into two groups — bustees , in which slum dwellers have some long term tenancy agreement with the landowners ; and udbastu colonies , settlements which had been leased to refugees from present @-@ day Bangladesh by the Government . The unauthorised slums ( devoid of basic services provided by the municipality ) are occupied by squatters who started living on encroached lands — mainly along canals , railway lines and roads . According to the 2005 National Family Health Survey , around 14 % of the households in Kolkata were poor , while 33 % lived in slums , indicating a substantial proportion of households in slum areas were better off economically than the bottom quarter of urban households in terms of wealth status . Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for founding and working with the Missionaries of Charity in Kolkata — an organisation " whose primary task was to love and care for those persons nobody was prepared to look after " .
= = Government and public services = =
= = = Civic administration = = =
Kolkata is administered by several government agencies . The Kolkata Municipal Corporation , or KMC , oversees and manages the civic infrastructure of the city 's 15 boroughs , which together encompass 141 wards . Each ward elects a councillor to the KMC . Each borough has a committee of councillors , each of whom is elected to represent a ward . By means of the borough committees , the corporation undertakes urban planning and maintains roads , government @-@ aided schools , hospitals , and municipal markets . As Kolkata 's apex body , the corporation discharges its functions through the mayor @-@ in @-@ council , which comprises a mayor , a deputy mayor , and ten other elected members of the KMC . The functions of the KMC include water supply , drainage and sewerage , sanitation , solid waste management , street lighting , and building regulation .
The Kolkata Municipal Corporation was ranked 1st out of 21 Cities for best governance & administrative practices in India in 2014 . It scored 4 @.@ 0 on 10 compared to the national average of 3 @.@ 3 .
The Kolkata Port Trust , an agency of the central government , manages the city 's river port . As of 2012 , the All India Trinamool Congress controls the KMC ; the mayor is Sovan Chatterjee , while the deputy mayor is Farzana Alam . The city has an apolitical titular post , that of the Sheriff of Kolkata , which presides over various city @-@ related functions and conferences .
Kolkata 's administrative agencies have areas of jurisdiction that do not coincide . Listed in ascending order by area , they are : Kolkata district ; the Kolkata Police area and the Kolkata Municipal Corporation area , or " Kolkata city " ; and the Kolkata metropolitan area , which is the city 's urban agglomeration . The agency overseeing the latter , the Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority , is responsible for the statutory planning and development of greater Kolkata .
As the seat of the Government of West Bengal , Kolkata is home to not only the offices of the local governing agencies , but also the West Bengal Legislative Assembly ; the state secretariat , which is housed in the Writers ' Building ; and the Calcutta High Court . Most government establishments and institutions are housed in the centre of the city in B. B. D. Bagh ( formerly known as Dalhousie Square ) . The Calcutta High Court is the oldest High Court in India . It was preceded by the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William which was established in 1774 . The Calcutta High Court has jurisdiction over the state of West Bengal and the Union Territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Kolkata has lower courts : the Court of Small Causes and the City Civil Court decide civil matters ; the Sessions Court rules in criminal cases . The Kolkata Police , headed by a police commissioner , is overseen by the West Bengal Ministry of Home Affairs . The Kolkata district elects two representatives to India 's lower house , the Lok Sabha , and 11 representatives to the state legislative assembly .
= = = Utility services = = =
The Kolkata Municipal Corporation supplies the city with potable water that is sourced from the Hooghly River ; most of it is treated and purified at the Palta pumping station located in North 24 Parganas district . Roughly 95 % of the 4 @,@ 000 tonnes of refuse produced daily by the city is transported to the dumping grounds in Dhapa , which is east of the town . To promote the recycling of garbage and sewer water , agriculture in encouraged on the dumping grounds . Parts of the city lack proper sewerage , leading to unsanitary methods of waste disposal .
Electricity is supplied by the privately operated Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation , or CESC , to the city proper ; the West Bengal State Electricity Board supplies it in the suburbs . Fire services are handled by the West Bengal Fire Service , a state agency . As of 2012 , the city had 16 fire stations .
State @-@ owned Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited , or BSNL , as well as private enterprises , among them Vodafone , Bharti Airtel , Reliance , Idea Cellular , Aircel , Tata DoCoMo , Tata Teleservices , Virgin Mobile , and MTS India , are the leading telephone and cell phone service providers in the city . Kolkata being the first city in India to have cell phone and 4G connectivity , the GSM and CDMA cellular coverage is extensive . As of 2010 , Kolkata has 7 percent of the total Broadband internet consumers in India ; BSNL , VSNL , Tata Indicom , Sify , Airtel , and Reliance are among the main vendors .
= = = Military and diplomatic establishments = = =
The Ordnance Factories Board of the Ministry of Defence , the Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers and the Eastern Command of the Indian Army are all headquartered in the city . The U.S Consulate in Calcutta is the US Department of State 's second oldest Consulate and dates from 19 November 1792 . The Consulate General serves the states of Bihar , Jharkhand , Odisha , West Bengal , Sikkim , Assam , Meghalaya , Tripura , Mizoram , Manipur , Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh .
= = Transport = =
Public transport is provided by the Kolkata Suburban Railway , the Kolkata Metro , trams , and buses . The suburban rail network reaches the city 's distant suburbs . According to a 2013 survey conducted by International Association of Public Transport , Kolkata ranks the top among the six cities surveyed in India , in terms of public transport system . The Kolkata Metro , in operation since 1984 , is the oldest underground mass transit system in India . It spans the north – south length of the city and covers a distance of 25 @.@ 1 km ( 16 mi ) . As of 2009 , five Metro rail lines were under construction . Kolkata has four long @-@ distance railway stations , located at Howrah ( the largest railway complex in India ) , Sealdah , Chitpur and Shalimar , which connect Kolkata by rail to most cities in West Bengal and to other major cities in India . The city serves as the headquarters of three railway Zone out of Seventeen of the Indian Railways regional divisions — the Kolkata Metro Railways , Eastern Railway and the South @-@ Eastern Railway .
Kolkata has rail and road connectivity with Dhaka , capital of Bangladesh .
Buses , which are the most commonly used mode of transport , are run by government agencies and private operators . Kolkata is the only Indian city with a tram network , which is operated by the Calcutta Tramways Company . The slow @-@ moving tram services are restricted to certain areas of the city . Water @-@ logging , caused by heavy rains that fall during the summer monsoon , can interrupt transportation networks . Hired public conveyances include auto rickshaws , which often ply specific routes , and yellow metered taxis . Almost all of Kolkata 's taxis are antiquated Hindustan Ambassadors by make ; newer air @-@ conditioned radio taxis are also in service . In parts of the city , cycle rickshaws and hand @-@ pulled rickshaws are patronised by the public for short trips .
Due to its diverse and abundant public transportation , privately owned vehicles are not as common in Kolkata as in other major Indian cities . The city has witnessed a steady increase in the number of registered vehicles ; 2002 data showed an increase of 44 % over a period of seven years . As of 2004 , after adjusting for population density , the city 's " road space " was only 6 % compared to 23 % in Delhi and 17 % in Mumbai . The Kolkata Metro has somewhat eased traffic congestion , as has the addition of new roads and flyovers . Agencies operating long @-@ distance bus services include Calcutta State Transport Corporation , South Bengal State Transport Corporation , North Bengal State Transport Corporation , and various private operators . The city 's main bus terminals are located at Esplanade and Babughat . The Kolkata – Delhi and Kolkata – Chennai prongs of the Golden Quadrilateral , and National Highway 34 start from the city .
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport , located in Dum Dum some 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) north @-@ east of the city centre , operates domestic and international flights . In 2013 , the airport was upgraded to handle increased air traffic . The Port of Kolkata , established in 1870 , is India 's oldest and the only major river port . The Kolkata Port Trust manages docks in Kolkata and Haldia . The port hosts passenger services to Port Blair , capital of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands ; freighter service to ports throughout India and around the world is operated by the Shipping Corporation of India . Ferry services connect Kolkata with its twin city of Howrah , located across the Hooghly River .
= = Healthcare = =
As of 2011 , the health care system in Kolkata consists of 48 government hospitals , mostly under the Department of Health & Family Welfare , Government of West Bengal , and 366 private medical establishments ; these establishments provide the city with 27 @,@ 687 hospital beds . For every 10 @,@ 000 people in the city , there are 61 @.@ 7 hospital beds , which is higher than the national average of 9 hospital beds per 10 @,@ 000 . Ten medical and dental colleges are located in the Kolkata metropolitan area which act as tertiary referral hospitals in the state . Calcutta Medical College , founded in 1835 , was the first institution in Asia to teach modern medicine . These facilities are inadequate to meet the healthcare needs of the city . More than 78 % in Kolkata prefer the private medical sector over the public medical sector , due to the poor quality of care , the lack of a nearby facility , and excessive waiting times at government facilities .
According to the 2005 National Family Health Survey , only a small proportion of Kolkata households were covered under any health scheme or health insurance . The total fertility rate in Kolkata was 1 @.@ 4 , which was the lowest among the eight cities surveyed . In Kolkata , 77 % of the married women used contraceptives , which was the highest among the cities surveyed , but use of modern contraceptive methods was the lowest ( 46 % ) . The infant mortality rate in Kolkata was 41 per 1 @,@ 000 live births , and the mortality rate for children under five was 49 per 1 @,@ 000 live births .
Among the surveyed cities , Kolkata stood second ( 5 % ) for children who had not had any vaccinations under the Universal Immunization Programme as of 2005 . Kolkata ranked second among the surveyed cities , with access to an anganwadi centre under the Integrated Child Development Services ( ICDS ) programme for 57 % of the children between 0 and 71 months . The proportion of malnourished , anaemic and underweight children in Kolkata was less in comparison to other surveyed cities .
About 18 % of the men and 30 % of the women in Kolkata are obese — the majority of them belonging to the non @-@ poor strata of society . In 2005 , Kolkata had the highest percentage ( 55 % ) among the surveyed cities of anaemic woman , while 20 % of the men in Kolkata were anaemic . Diseases like diabetes , asthma , goitre and other thyroid disorders were found in large numbers of people . Tropical diseases like malaria , dengue and chikungunya are prevalent in Kolkata , though their incidence is decreasing . Kolkata is one of the districts in India with a high number of people with AIDS ; it has been designated a district prone to high risk .
Because of higher air pollution , the life expectancy of a person born in the city in 2014 , is four years fewer than in the suburbs .
= = Education = =
Kolkata 's schools are run by the state government or private organisations , many of which are religious . Bengali and English are the primary languages of instruction ; Urdu and Hindi are also used , particularly in central Kolkata . Schools in Kolkata follow the " 10 + 2 + 3 " plan . After completing their secondary education , students typically enroll in schools that have a higher secondary facility and are affiliated with the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education , the ICSE , or the CBSE . They usually choose a focus on liberal arts , business , or science . Vocational programs are also available . Some Kolkata schools , for example La Martiniere Calcutta , St. Xavier 's Collegiate School , and Loreto House , have been ranked amongst the best schools in the country .
As of 2010 , the Kolkata urban agglomeration is home to 14 universities run by the state government . The colleges are each affiliated with a university or institution based either in Kolkata or elsewhere in India . Aliah University which was founded in 1780 as Mohammedan College of Calcutta is the oldest post @-@ secondary educational institution of the city . The University of Calcutta , founded in 1857 , is the first modern university in South Asia . Bengal Engineering and Science University ( BESU ) is the second oldest engineering institution of the country located in Howrah . An Institute of National Importance , BESU was converted to India 's first IIEST . Jadavpur University is known for its arts , science , and engineering faculties . The Indian Institute of Management Calcutta , which was the first of the Indian Institutes of Management , was established in 1961 at Joka , a locality in the south @-@ western suburbs . Kolkata also houses the prestigious Indian Institute of Foreign Trade , which was started here in the year 2006 . The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences is one of India 's autonomous law schools , and the Indian Statistical Institute is a public research institute and university .
Notable scholars who were born , worked or studied in Kolkata include physicists Satyendra Nath Bose , Meghnad Saha , and Jagadish Chandra Bose ; chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy ; statisticians Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis and Anil Kumar Gain ; physician Upendranath Brahmachari ; educator Ashutosh Mukherjee ; and Nobel laureates Rabindranath Tagore , C. V. Raman , and Amartya Sen.
Kolkata houses many premier research institutes like Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science ( IACS ) , Indian Institute of Chemical Biology ( IICB ) , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research ( IISER ) , Bose Institute , Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics ( SINP ) , All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health , Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute ( CGCRI ) , S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences ( SNBNCBS ) , Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management ( IISWBM ) , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Kolkata , Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre ( VECC ) and Indian Centre for Space Physics . Nobel laureate Sir C. V. Raman did his groundbreaking work in Raman effect in IACS .
= = Culture = =
Kolkata is known for its literary , artistic , and revolutionary heritage ; as the former capital of India , it was the birthplace of modern Indian literary and artistic thought . Kolkata has been called the " City of Furious , Creative Energy " as well as the " cultural [ or literary ] capital of India " . The presence of paras , which are neighbourhoods that possess a strong sense of community , is characteristic of the city . Typically , each para has its own community club and , on occasion , a playing field . Residents engage in addas , or leisurely chats , that often take the form of freestyle intellectual conversation . The city has a tradition of political graffiti depicting everything from outrageous slander to witty banter and limericks , caricatures , and propaganda .
Kolkata has many buildings adorned with Indo @-@ Islamic and Indo @-@ Saracenic architectural motifs . Several well @-@ maintained major buildings from the colonial period have been declared " heritage structures " ; others are in various stages of decay . Established in 1814 as the nation 's oldest museum , the Indian Museum houses large collections that showcase Indian natural history and Indian art . Marble Palace is a classic example of a European mansion that was built in the city . The Victoria Memorial , a place of interest in Kolkata , has a museum documenting the city 's history . The National Library of India is the leading public library in the country while Science City is the largest science centre in the Indian subcontinent .
The popularity of commercial theatres in the city has declined since the 1980s . Group theatres of Kolkata , a cultural movement that started in the 1940s contrasting with the then @-@ popular commercial theatres , are theatres that are not professional or commercial , and are centres of various experiments in theme , content , and production ; group theatres use the proscenium stage to highlight socially relevant messages . Chitpur locality of the city houses multiple production companies of jatra , a tradition of folk drama popular in rural Bengal . Kolkata is the home of the Bengali cinema industry , dubbed " Tollywood " for Tollygunj , where most of the state 's film studios are located . Its long tradition of art films includes globally acclaimed film directors such as Academy Award @-@ winning director Satyajit Ray , Ritwik Ghatak , Mrinal Sen , Tapan Sinha , and contemporary directors such as Aparna Sen , Buddhadeb Dasgupta , Goutam Ghose and Rituparno Ghosh .
During the 19th and 20th centuries , Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar , Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay , Michael Madhusudan Dutt , Rabindranath Tagore , Kazi Nazrul Islam , and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay . Coupled with social reforms led by Ram Mohan Roy , Swami Vivekananda , and others , this constituted a major part of the Bengal Renaissance . The middle and latter parts of the 20th century witnessed the arrival of post @-@ modernism , as well as literary movements such as those espoused by the Kallol movement , hungryalists and the little magazines . Large majority of publishers of the city is concentrated in and around College Street , " ... a half @-@ mile of bookshops and bookstalls spilling over onto the pavement " , selling new and used books .
Kalighat painting originated in 19th century Kolkata as a local style that reflected a variety of themes including mythology and quotidian life . The Government College of Art and Craft , founded in 1864 , has been the cradle as well as workplace of eminent artists including Abanindranath Tagore , Jamini Roy , and Nandalal Bose . The art college was the birthplace of the Bengal school of art that arose as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the prevalent academic art styles in the early 20th century . The Academy of Fine Arts and other art galleries hold regular art exhibitions . The city is recognised for its appreciation of rabindrasangeet ( songs written by Rabindranath Tagore ) and Indian classical music , with important concerts and recitals , such as Dover Lane Music Conference , being held throughout the year ; Bengali popular music , including baul folk ballads , kirtans , and Gajan festival music ; and modern music , including Bengali @-@ language adhunik songs . Since the early 1990s , new genres have emerged , including one comprising alternative folk – rock Bengali bands . Another new style , jibonmukhi gaan ( " songs about life " ) , is based on realism . Key elements of Kolkata 's cuisine include rice and a fish curry known as machher jhol , which can be accompanied by desserts such as roshogolla , sandesh , and a sweet yoghurt known as mishti dohi . Bengal 's large repertoire of seafood dishes includes various preparations of ilish , a fish that is a favourite among Calcuttans . Street foods such as beguni ( fried battered eggplant slices ) , kati roll ( flatbread roll with vegetable or chicken , mutton , or egg stuffing ) , phuchka ( a deep @-@ fried crêpe with tamarind sauce ) and Indian Chinese cuisine from Chinatown are popular .
Though Bengali women traditionally wear the sari , the shalwar kameez and Western attire is gaining acceptance among younger women . Western @-@ style dress has greater acceptance among men , although the traditional dhoti and kurta are seen during festivals . Durga Puja , held in September – October , is Kolkata 's most important and largest festival ; it is an occasion for glamorous celebrations and artistic decorations . The Bengali New Year , known as Poila Boishak , as well as the harvest festival of Poush Parbon are among the city 's other festivals ; also celebrated are Kali Puja , Diwali , Holi , Jagaddhatri Puja , Saraswati Puja , Rathayatra , Janmashtami , Maha Shivratri , Vishwakarma Puja , Lakshmi Puja , Ganesh Chathurthi , Makar Sankranti , Gajan , Kalpataru Day , Bhai Phonta , Maghotsab , Eid , Muharram , Christmas , Buddha Purnima and Mahavir Jayanti . Cultural events include the Rabindra Jayanti , Independence Day ( 15 August ) , Republic Day ( 26 January ) , Kolkata Book Fair , the Dover Lane Music Festival , the Kolkata Film Festival , Nandikar 's National Theatre Festival , Statesman Vintage & Classic Car Rally and Gandhi Jayanti .
= = Media = =
The first newspaper in India , the Bengal Gazette started publishing from the city in 1780 . Among Kolkata 's widely circulated Bengali @-@ language newspapers are Anandabazar Patrika , Bartaman , Sangbad Pratidin , Aajkaal , Dainik Statesman and Ganashakti . The Statesman and The Telegraph are two major English @-@ language newspapers that are produced and published from Kolkata . Other popular English @-@ language newspapers published and sold in Kolkata include The Times of India , Hindustan Times , The Hindu , The Indian Express , and the Asian Age . As the largest trading centre in East India , Kolkata has several high @-@ circulation financial dailies , including The Economic Times , The Financial Express , Business Line , and Business Standard . Vernacular newspapers , such as those in the Hindi , Urdu , Gujarati , Odia , Punjabi , and Chinese languages , are read by minorities . Major periodicals based in Kolkata include Desh , Sananda , Saptahik Bartaman , Unish @-@ Kuri , Anandalok , and Anandamela . Historically , Kolkata has been the centre of the Bengali little magazine movement .
All India Radio , the national state @-@ owned radio broadcaster , airs several AM radio stations in the city . Kolkata has 12 local radio stations broadcasting on FM , including two from AIR . India 's state @-@ owned television broadcaster , Doordarshan , provides two free @-@ to @-@ air terrestrial channels , while a mix of Bengali , Hindi , English , and other regional channels are accessible via cable subscription , direct @-@ broadcast satellite services , or internet @-@ based television . Bengali @-@ language 24 @-@ hour television news channels include ABP Ananda , Tara Newz , Kolkata TV , 24 Ghanta , News Time and Channel 10 .
= = Sports = =
The most popular sports in Kolkata are football and cricket . Unlike most parts of India , the residents show significant passion for football . The city is home to top national football clubs such as Mohun Bagan A.C. , East Bengal F.C. , Prayag United S.C. , and the Mohammedan Sporting Club . Calcutta Football League , which was started in 1898 , is the oldest football league in Asia . Mohun Bagan A.C. , one of the oldest football clubs in Asia , is the only organisation to be dubbed a " National Club of India " . Football matches between Mohun Bagan and East Bengal , dubbed as the Kolkata derby , witness large audience attendance and rivalry between patrons .
As in the rest of India , cricket is popular in Kolkata and is played on grounds and in streets throughout the city . Kolkata has an Indian Premier League franchise known as the Kolkata Knight Riders ; the Cricket Association of Bengal , which regulates cricket in West Bengal , is also based in the city . Kolkata has an Indian Super League franchise also known as Atlético de Kolkata . Tournaments , especially those involving cricket , football , badminton , and carrom , are regularly organised on an inter @-@ locality or inter @-@ club basis . The Maidan , a vast field that serves as the city 's largest park , hosts several minor football and cricket clubs and coaching institutes .
Eden Gardens , which has a capacity of 66 @,@ 349 as of 2015 , hosted the final match of the 1987 Cricket World Cup . It is home to the Bengal cricket team and the Kolkata Knight Riders . The multi @-@ use Salt Lake Stadium , also known as Yuva Bharati Krirangan , is India 's largest stadium by seating capacity . The Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second @-@ oldest cricket club in the world . Kolkata has three 18 @-@ hole golf courses . The oldest is at the Royal Calcutta Golf Club , the first golf club built outside the United Kingdom . The other two are located at the Tollygunge Club and at Fort William . The Royal Calcutta Turf Club hosts horse racing and polo matches . The Calcutta Polo Club is considered the oldest extant polo club in the world . The Calcutta Racket Club is a squash and racquet club in Kolkata . It was founded in 1793 , making it one of the oldest rackets clubs in the world , and the first in the Indian subcontinent . The Calcutta South Club is a venue for national and international tennis tournaments ; it held the first grass @-@ court national championship in 1946 . In the period 2005 – 2007 , Sunfeast Open , a tier @-@ III tournament on the Women 's Tennis Association circuit , was held in the Netaji Indoor Stadium ; it has since been discontinued .
The Calcutta Rowing Club hosts rowing heats and training events . Kolkata , considered the leading centre of rugby union in India , gives its name to the oldest international tournament in rugby union , the Calcutta Cup . The Automobile Association of Eastern India , established in 1904 , and the Bengal Motor Sports Club are involved in promoting motor sports and car rallies in Kolkata and West Bengal . The Beighton Cup , an event organised by the Bengal Hockey Association and first played in 1895 , is India 's oldest field hockey tournament ; it is usually held on the Mohun Bagan Ground of the Maidan . Athletes from Kolkata include Sourav Ganguly and Pankaj Roy , who are former captains of the Indian national cricket team ; Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes , golfer Arjun Atwal , and former footballers Sailen Manna , Chuni Goswami , P. K. Banerjee , and Subrata Bhattacharya .
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= Q 'umarkaj =
Q 'umarkaj , ( K 'iche ' : [ qʔumarˈkah ] ) ( sometimes rendered as Gumarkaaj , Gumarcaj , Cumarcaj or Kumarcaaj ) is an archaeological site in the southwest of the El Quiché department of Guatemala . Q 'umarkaj is also known as Utatlán , the Nahuatl translation of the city 's name . The name comes from K 'iche ' Q 'umarkah " Place of old reeds " .
Q 'umarkaj was one of the most powerful Maya cities when the Spanish arrived in the region in the early 16th century . It was the capital of the K 'iche ' Maya in the Late Postclassic Period . At the time of the Spanish Conquest , Q 'umarkaj was a relatively new capital , with the capital of the K 'iche ' kingdom having originally been situated at Jakawitz ( identified with the archaeological site Chitinamit ) and then at Pismachi ' . Q 'umarkaj was founded during the reign of king Q 'uq 'umatz ( " Feathered Serpent " in K 'iche ' ) in the early 15th century , immediately to the north of Pismachi ' . In 1470 the city was seriously weakened by a rebellion among the nobility that resulted in the loss of key allies of the K 'iche ' .
Archaeologically and ethnohistorically , Q 'umarkaj is the best known of the Late Postclassic highland Maya capitals . The earliest reference to the site in Spanish occurs in Hernán Cortés ' letters from Mexico . Although the site has been investigated , little reconstruction work has taken place . The surviving architecture , which includes a Mesoamerican ballcourt , temples and palaces , has been badly damaged by the looting of stone to build the nearby town of Santa Cruz del Quiché .
The major structures of Q 'umarkaj were laid out around a plaza . They included the temple of Tohil , a jaguar god who was patron of the city , the temple of Awilix , the patron goddess of one of the noble houses , the temple of Jakawitz , a mountain deity who was also a noble patron and the temple of Q 'uq 'umatz , the Feathered Serpent , the patron of the royal house . The main ballcourt was placed between the palaces of two of the principal noble houses . Palaces , or nimja , were spread throughout the city . There was also a platform that was used for gladiatorial sacrifice .
The area of Greater Q 'umarkaj was divided into four major political division , one for each of the most important ruling lineages , and also encompassed a number of smaller satellites sites , including Chisalin , Pismachi ' , Atalaya and Pakaman . The site core is open to the public and includes basic infrastructure , including a small site museum .
= = Etymology = =
Q 'umarkaj comes from the K 'iche ' Q 'umqaraq 'aj . While often translated as " place of old reeds " or " place of rotted cane " , the name Q 'uma 'rka 'aaj translates more precisely as " rotted reed houses " ( q 'uma 'r |
= " rotten " ; ka 'aaj =
" house or shack built of cane and reeds " ) . It was translated as Tecpan Utatlan by the Nahuatl @-@ speaking Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish conquistadors , with Tecpan being added to distinguish the city as being a seat of rule , equivalent to the Tollan used in Mesoamerica in earlier times .
= = Location = =
The ruins of the city are 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) to the west of the modern city of Santa Cruz del Quiché . Q 'umarkaj completely occupies 120 @,@ 000 square metres ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of an easily defended plateau surrounded by ravines over 100 metres ( 330 ft ) deep . The ravines are part of a drainage system feeding the Negro River , which flows into the Chixoy River and eventually into the Usumacinta River and the Gulf of Mexico . A natural causeway to the southeast of the site links the plateau with a wide plain to the east .
Q 'umarkaj is the largest in a group of five major sites tightly clustered in an area of 4 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) , with the area between the sites showing signs of also having been heavily occupied . Atalaya and Pakaman lie to the east , Pismachi ' lies to the south and Chisalin is to the north .
= = Inhabitants = =
In the Late Postclassic , the greater Q 'umarkaj area is estimated to have had a population of around 15 @,@ 000 . The inhabitants of Q 'umarkaj were divided socially between the nobility and their vassals . The nobles were known as the ajaw , while the vassals were known as the al k 'ajol . The nobility were the patrilineal descendents of the founding warlords who appear to have entered as conquerors from the Gulf coast around AD 1200 and who eventually lost their original language and adopted that of their subjects . The nobles were regarded as sacred and bore royal imagery . Their vassals served as foot @-@ soldiers and were subject to the laws laid out by the nobility , although they could receive military titles as a result of their battlefield prowess . The social divisions were deep seated and were equivalent to strictly observed castes . The merchants were a privileged class , although they had to make tributary payments to the nobility . In addition to these classes , the population included rural labourers and artisans . Slaves were also held and included both sentenced criminals and prisoners of war .
There were twenty @-@ four important lineages , or nimja , in Q 'umarkaj , closely linked to the palaces in which the nobility attended to their duties ; Nimja means " big house " in K 'iche ' , after the palace complexes that the lineages occupied . Their duties included marriage negotiations and associated feasting and ceremonial lecturing . These lineages were strongly patrilineal and were grouped into four larger , more powerful nimja that chose the rulers of the city . At the time of the Conquest , the four ruling nimja were the Kaweq , the Nijaib , the Saqik and the Ajaw K 'iche ' . The Kaweq and the Nijaib included nine principal lineages each , the Ajaw K 'iche ' included four and the Saqik had two . As well as choosing the king and king elect , the ruling Kaweq dynasty also had a lineage that produced the powerful priests of Q 'uq 'umatz , who may have served as stewards of the city .
The K 'iche ' kingdom was ruled by a king , a king @-@ elect and two captains , a four @-@ way joint rule embodied in four leaders , one from each of the four most important lineages in the city of Q 'umarkaj . This form of rule was also known among the Maya of Yucatan . The ruling lineage was the Kaweq ( " Rain " ) dynasty , that chose both the king and the king @-@ elect . The king was known as the ajpop , " He of the Mat " . The king @-@ elect bore the title of ajpop k 'amha and assisted the king until he became king himself . The Nijaib and the Saqik noble houses chose the q 'alel ( supreme judge ) and the Ajaw K 'iche ' chose the atzij winaq ( speaker ) .
= = History = =
Ceramic remains from the site include pieces that date as far back as the Preclassic Period but the majority of finds date to the Late Postclassic and the height of the K 'iche ' kingdom .
= = = Founding and expansion = = =
The site was founded by king Q 'uq 'umatz around 1400 for its defensive position , however there is some disagreement as to whether he is a historical or a mythological figure . Q 'uq 'umatz is K 'iche for feathered serpent , and feathered serpent is used as a title in other parts of Mesoamerica . It is probable that Q 'uq 'umatz was really the title of another ajpop mentioned in the sources , Kotuja ' , and was actually the same individual . In the Título de los Señores de Totonicapán , an early Colonial era K 'iche ' document , he is listed as Q 'uq 'umatz Kotuja ' . In the same title , his father is listed as Kotuja ' Q 'uq 'umatz , and there is confusion in the K 'iche ' documents as to whether they were one and the same , or father and son with very similar names .
K 'otuja Q 'uq 'umatz married Xlem , daughter of the king of the Tz 'utujils of Malaj , a precolumbian settlement near modern @-@ day San Lucas Tolimán , on the shores of Lake Atitlán . Great magical powers were attributed to Q 'uq 'umatz and he was said to be able to transform himself into a snake , an eagle , a jaguar and blood . Q 'uq 'umatz had several children , one of whom ( K 'iq 'ab ) became king after him . Q 'uq 'umatz was killed in battle against the K 'oja Maya .
Q 'uq 'umatz greatly expanded the K 'iche ' kingdom , first from Pismachi ' and later from Q 'umarkaj . At this time , the K 'iche 's were closely allied with the Kaqchikels . Q 'uq 'umatz sent his daughter to marry the lord of the K 'oja , a Maya people based in the Cuchumatan mountains , somewhere between Sacapulas and Huehuetenango . Instead of marrying her and submitting to the K 'iche ' -Kaqchikel alliance , Tekum Sik 'om , the K 'oja king , killed the offered bride . This act initiated a war between the K 'iche ' -Kaqchikel of Q 'umarkaj and the K 'oja . Q 'uq 'umatz died in the resulting battle against the K 'oja .
With the death of his father in battle against the K 'oja , his son and heir K 'iq 'ab swore vengeance , and two years later he led the K 'iche ' -Kaqchikel alliance against his enemies , together with the Ajpop K 'amha ( king @-@ elect ) . The K 'iche ' -led army entered K 'oja at first light , killed Tekum Sik 'om and captured his son . K 'iq 'ab recovered the bones of his father and returned to Q 'umarkaj with many prisoners and all the jade and metal that the K 'oja possessed , after conquering various settlements in the Sacapulas area , and the Mam people near Zaculeu .
K 'iq 'ab was said to have had magical powers like his father . K 'iq 'ab was a particularly warlike king and during his reign he greatly expanded the kingdom to include Rabinal , Cobán and Quetzaltenango , and extended as far west as the Okos River , near the modern border between the Chiapas coast of Mexico and Guatemalan Pacific coast . With Kaqchikel help , the eastern frontier of the kingdom was pushed as far as the Motagua River and south as far as Escuintla . However , he also suffered a humiliating rebellion that eventually resulted in the loss of his key Kaqchikel allies . K 'iq 'ab died around 1475 .
= = = Internal strife = = =
In 1470 a rebellion shook Q 'umarkaj during a great celebration that saw a large gathering that included representatives of all the most important highland peoples . Two sons of K 'iq 'ab together with some of his vassals rebelled against their king , killing many high ranking lords , Kaqchikel warriors and members of the Kaweq lineage . The rebels tried to kill K 'iq 'ab himself but he was defended by sons loyal to him in Pakaman , on the outskirts of the city . As a result of the rebellion , K 'iq 'ab was forced to make concessions to the rebelling K 'iche ' lords . The newly empowered K 'iche ' lords turned against their Kaqchikel allies , who were forced to flee Q 'umarkaj and found their own capital at Iximche .
After the death of king K 'iq 'ab in 1475 the K 'iche ' were engaged in warfare against both the Tz 'utujils and the Kaqchikels , perhaps in an attempt to recover the former power of Q 'umarkaj . A short time after the death of K 'iq 'ab , under the leadership of Tepepul , Q 'umarkaj attacked Iximche , the capital of the Kaqchikels , and suffered a disastrous defeat that greatly weakened the K 'iche ' . After this Q 'umarkaj never again directly challenged the Kaqchikels of Iximche . The next leader after Tepepul was Tekum , who was a son of K 'iq 'ab. who led the K 'iche 's against the Tz 'utujils and was killed in battle near the south shore of Lake Atitlan .
Late in the history of Q 'umarkaj , the Nijaib appear to have been challenging the ruling Kaweq house for supremacy .
= = = Conquest and destruction = = =
In March 1524 , the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado entered Q 'umarkaj when invited by the remaining lords of the K 'iche ' , after he defeated the K 'iche ' army in the Quetzaltenango valley , in a battle that had resulted in the death of Tecun Uman , one of the four lords of the city . Alvarado feared that a trap had been laid for him by the K 'iche ' lords but entered the city anyway . However , he encamped on the plain outside the city rather than accepting lodgings inside . Fearing the great number of K 'iche ' warriors gathered outside the city and that his cavalry would not be able to manoeuvre in the narrow streets of Q 'umarkaj , he invited the highest lords of the city , Oxib @-@ Keh ( the ajpop ) and Beleheb @-@ Tzy ( the ajpop k 'amha ) to visit him in his camp . As soon as they did so , he seized them and kept them as prisoners in his camp . The K 'iche ' warriors , seeing their lords taken prisoner , attacked the Spaniards ' indigenous allies and managed to kill one of the Spanish soldiers . At this point Alvarado decided to have the captured K 'iche ' lords burnt to death , he then proceeded to burn the entire city .
= = = Modern history = = =
The site was extensively documented in the colonial era . Francisco Ximénez , who first revealed the K 'iche ' epic Popul Vuh to the world , visited Q 'umarkaj in the final years of the 17th century . Miguel Rivera y Maestre wrote a report of the site for the government of Guatemala in 1834 . In 1840 John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood paid a brief visit to the site after reading Rivera y Maestre 's report , and Catherwood mapped the site and produced a drawing of the Temple of Tohil . In 1865 , the French architect Cesar Daly mapped the five clustered sites that include Q 'umarkaj , although the maps have since been lost . A more detailed survey of the site was made by Alfred P. Maudslay in 1887 , being published between 1889 and 1902 . Archeological excavations were carried out in the 1950s and the 1970s .
Jorge F. Guillemín cleared the ruins in 1956 , mapped the surviving structures , as well as mapping the central K 'iche ' region and Q 'umarkaj 's satellite sites . The State University of New York at Albany spent three seasons excavating the ruins in the early 1970s . Kenneth Brown of the University of Houston started major excavations at Q 'umarkaj in 1977 .
In 2003 , the Proyecto Etnoarqueológico Q ’ um ’ arkaj ( " Q 'umarkaj Ethnoarchaeological Project " ) has worked to reconstruct the history and socio @-@ political organisation of the city through archaeological studies combined with ethnohistorical investigations .
The archaeological site is still used for traditional Maya ceremonies , and is one of the most popular destinations in Guatemala for this kind of ritual activity , especially at the solstices and for the New Year .
= = Site description = =
The site can be visited , although little restoration work has been done to it . Various temple pyramids , the remains of palaces ( mostly reduced to mounds of rubble ) and a court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame can be seen in the site core . In the Greater Q 'umarkaj area there were four ballcourts , one in each of the four major political divisions of the city , testifying to the central role of the ballgame ritual in the sociopolitical organisation of the city .
Cut stone originally facing the buildings was taken to build the new buildings of Santa Cruz del Quiché ; the ruins were still being mined for construction material through the late 19th century , doing extensive damage to the remains of the old buildings .
The major structures of Q 'umarkaj were laid out around a plaza , which had a plaster floor . The K 'iche ' colonnaded buildings at Q 'umarkaj appear to indicate ties with the distant city of Mayapan in the Yucatan Peninsula . The parallels also include skull imagery , effigy figure censers , squatting figures and the generous application of stucco . A combined aerial and surface analysis of the ruins has revealed a strongly patterned arrangement with repeating combinations of pyramids , long structures and multipatio residential complexes . These repeating combinations appear to be linked to the different nimja lineages . In addition there appears to be a larger division of the site , separating it into northwestern and southwestern halves . The dividing line runs from the west along a street to the central plaza , crosses the ballcourt and the plaza , then separates the northern and eastern branches of the site up to the rim of the canyon on the eastern side . This larger site division places six nimja complexes in the northern half and six in the south , although this larger division may not have been strictly along lineage lines , since Kaweq @-@ linked structures are found in both halves of the site . The Kaweq and their allies dominated most of the site , with the Nijaib occupying the eastern portion , possibly as far as the satellite site of Atalaya .
= = = Temple of Tohil = = =
The plaza was dominated by the Temple of Tohil , who was a jaguar deity associated with the sun and with rain and was the patron deity of Q 'umarkaj . This temple lies on the western side of the main plaza . The standing remains are reduced to the rubble and mud core of the temple , with an opening where modern Maya still make offerings . As late as the middle of the 19th century , this temple was much better preserved and was described by John Lloyd Stephens . Originally the temple consisted of a steep pyramid with stairways on three sides , all except the west , and a temple building was on the summit . The base was 33 feet ( 10 m ) on each side and the exterior of the building was covered in painted stucco . Catherwood 's copy of Rivera y Maestre 's drawing of the temple showed the body of the pyramid divided into four talud @-@ tablero terraces and 19 steps in each of the three stairways , while Rivera y Maestra 's drawing depicts 24 steps and six terraces . Francisco Ximénez , writing at the end of the 17th century , described the temple as the tallest building in Q 'umarkaj . The identity of the temple as that of Tohil was known during the lifetime of Ximénez , when 30 steps were visible in each stairway and the remains of the pillars that supported the temple roof were still standing . The building style of the Temple of Tohil is similar to that of the most important temples of Mayapan and Chichen Itza , far to the north in the Yucatan Peninsula . The pillars possibly once supported an elaborate masonry roof .
The Temple of Tohil was used for human sacrifice , the bodies of the sacrificial victims were probably hurled down the front stairway before being decapitated and the heads places on a skull rack . This tzumpan was likely to have been located immediately to the southeast of the temple , in an area that is now buried under rubble fallen from the temple itself .
An image of a jaguar was found painted onto the stucco of the temple , an animal that was a nahual of the ruling Kaweq dynasty .
= = = Temple of Awilix = = =
The Temple of Awilix is on the east side of the plaza . Awilix was the patron goddess of the Nijaib lineage and is identified with Ixbalanque , one of the Hero Twins from the Popul Vuh . According to a drawing made by Rivera y Maestre , the temple of Awilix was not as tall as the temple of Tohil . This structure was apparently the second most important temple in Q 'umarkaj . Originally this temple was formed of a large rectangular platform supporting a smaller platform and a temple structure on the east side . A wide stairway climbed the west side of the temple , it was flanked on the lower level by two large talud @-@ tablero panels . The exterior stonework of the building has been completely stripped away . The temple is similar in form to a temple mound on the west side of the first plaza in Iximche , the postclassic capital of the Kaqchikel Maya . There were four principal phases of construction and there is evidence that the temple had been repaired various times prior to the Conquest . The floor under the third phase of construction had been painted dark green . Archaeological investigations found fragments of incense burners underneath the first building phase .
= = = Temple of Jakawitz = = =
A large mound on the south side of the plaza was once the Temple of Jakawitz , a deity of the mountains and the patron of the Ajaw K 'iche ' lineage . Like the other structures of Q 'umarkaj , all the stone facing has been robbed , leaving only a rubble and mud core . This structure was part of a complex that consisted of a patio enclosed by the temple on the northern side , a palace on the southern side and a long building on the east . The Jakawitz complex has not been investigated archaeologically . Drawings by Rivera y Maestre suggest that the temple was a narrow building with four or five terraces .
= = = Temple of Q 'uq 'umatz = = =
The temple of Q 'uq 'umatz was a circular temple of the feathered serpent , and a palace in honour of the Kawek lineage , the ruling dynasty of the city . The temple is now only a circular impression in the surface of the main plaza . It is located directly between the temples of Tohil and Awilix , slightly north of the central axis of the Tohil temple and slightly south of the axis of the Awilix temple . From the traces left in the plaza it is evident that the temple consisted of a circular wall measuring 6 metres ( 20 ft ) across , running around a circular platform , with a 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) wide circular passage between the two . The whole structure probably once supported a roof and there were small stone platforms on the east and west sides of the temple , each about 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) wide .
The priests of Q 'uq 'umatz were drawn from an important lineage among the ruling Kaweq dynasty and this was likely to have been a source of power and prestige for the Kaweq . The temple of Q 'uq 'umatz must have been completely dismantled very soon after the Spanish Conquest since it is not mentioned by any of the Colonial era visitors , and early drawings of the site show only vegetation where the temple once stood . The tradition of circular temples dedicated to the Feathered Serpent deity was an ancient one in the Mesoamerican cultural region .
= = = Ballcourt = = =
The Ballcourt lies close to , and just south of , the temple of Tohil , on the southwest side of the plaza . The ballcourt still retains its distinctive shape , although the structures have been robbed of their facing . The visible ballcourt was one of four in Q 'umarkaj and was administered by the Popol Winaq branch of the ruling Kaweq lineage . The ballcourt is aligned east @-@ west with a length of 40 metres ( 130 ft ) . The ballcourt was located exactly between the palaces of the Kaweq and the Ajaw K 'iche ' , which were located 15 metres ( 49 ft ) to the north and the south of the ballcourt . Correspondingly , the north range of the ballcourt appears to have been associated with the Kaweq lineage and the south range with the Ajaw K 'iche ' lineage .
= = = Palaces = = =
A small palace belonging to the Nijaib lineage was located directly behind the temple of Awilix . These lineage houses , nimja , are found throughout the city of Q 'umarkaj . As with the other buildings of the site , the outer stonework and plastering has been lost . The nimja are long rectangular structures located beside the plazas upon 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high platforms . Upon these platforms , the palaces generally consisted of two levels , a lower roofed antechamber with a second , higher level supporting the main rooms of the structure . Some of the larger palaces had several stairways giving access to the antechamber , and multiple doors and pillars opening into the rooms of main building .
Another nimja palace structure lies to the southeast of the main plaza . Excavations in 1972 uncovered a simple superstructure consisting of a room with a bench at the back and an altar in the middle . Six funerary urns were found in the remains of the palace , one of which was found near the altar and contained rich offerings that included a gold necklace . There were traces of hearths at each extreme of the main chamber .
= = = Other structures = = =
In the central plaza there are traces of thirteen small platforms that once stood there . Three of these , each measuring 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) wide , were located to the north of the Temple of K 'ucumatz . A line of five similar structures was also located to the south of the same temple , with an alternating pattern of a circular platform , then a square platform , followed by another circular platform and so on . There was a sixth small platform nearby , which was square in shape . These platforms appear to have served as altars .
To the south of the line of platforms are the traces of two larger square platforms . One of these measured 10 metres ( 33 ft ) on each side , the other measured 8 metres ( 26 ft ) per side . A circular impression lies between these two platforms , which is all that remains of another platform , of a different type , that must have stood there . The larger platforms may also have served as auxiliary altars to those of the principle temples .
A large square platform in the northwest section of the central plaza , measuring 18 metres ( 59 ft ) on each side , it is located immediately behind the Temple of Tohil and stands 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high . Although , typically for the site , the outer stonework has been robbed , there are the remains of six layers of plaster on the floor of the platform 's upper surface . This platform has been identified as the sokib 'al , the platform of gladiators described in early sources . This platform seems to have been closely linked to the military lineages of the Kaweq , such as the Nima Rajpop Achij .
Two large platforms lie in the southeastern section of the main plaza , their use remains unknown .
= = = Caves = = =
In addition , a series of three caves tunnel straight into the limestone immediately to the north of the site . The first and most extensive cave is about 30 meters long with various altars carved into the rock inside . Some modern Quiché , although officially Roman Catholic , still burn candles and incense at the ruined temples . The caves may have represented Tulán Zuyuá , the " Place of Seven Caves " described in the K 'iche ' origin legend recounted in the Popul Vuh .
= = Satellite sites = =
A number of other archaeological sites are included within the area of Greater Q 'umarkaj ( usually referred to as Greater Utatlan ) .
= = = Chisalin = = =
Chisalin is alson known by the alternative names of Pilokab ' and Muqwitz Pilokab ' . Chisalin is located a few hundred meters north of Q 'umarkaj . The ruins are located on a narrow strip of land with an area of 110 @,@ 000 square metres ( 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 sq ft ) surrounded by steep ravines . On the northeast side the strip is connected to a plateau that forms a part of the plain to the east of Q 'umarkaj . Chisalin has a small , heavily eroded plaza , and the whole strip is occupied by ruins , with the exception of a small section .
= = = Pismachi ' = = =
Pismachi ' ( sometimes referred to as Ismachi ' ) occupies a small plateau 600 metres ( 660 yd ) south of the site core and is surrounded by steep ravines . The plateau is separated from the Q 'umarkaj plateau by the ravine containing the Ismachi ' river . Pismachi ' was the K 'iche ' capital before it was moved to nearby Q 'umarkaj , and was probably founded early in the 14th century . Its location was never forgotten by the local K 'iche 's although it was from time to time lost by outside investigators . French missionary Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg located Pismachi ' in the middle of the 19th century , it was then lost until it was relocated in 1956 by Jorge Guillemín , working in collaboration with the government of Guatemala , the location was reconfirmed by Robert Carmack in 1969 . Although the Pismachi ' plateau is twice the size of the Q 'umarkaj plateau , the ruins occupy a small area on the southeast portion of the hilltop . The ruins are still used for the rituals of modern K 'iche ' shamans .
= = = Atalaya = = =
Atalaya ( Spanish for " watchtower " ) is located at a distance of 600 metres ( 660 yd ) to the east of the site core . The site was built upon four terraces that dominated the approach to Q 'umarkaj , at the beginning of the eastern plain occupied by the modern town of Santa Cruz del Quiché . The site was very small , covering an area of 3 @,@ 250 square metres ( 35 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . A paved avenue ( or sacbe ) is said by locals to have passed the tower , which was closely linked to the Nijaib lineage . Between Q 'umarkaj and Atalaya there was a place where criminals were punished . Atalaya is used for modern K 'iche ' rituals and is the focus of local folklore , which relates that Tecún Umán is buried there and that it is haunted by tzitzimit spirits . Towards the end of the 20th century the majority of the land making up the site still belonged to the Rojas family , descendents of the kings of Q 'umarkaj .
= = = Pakaman = = =
Pakaman is located 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) east of Atalaya and 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 mi ) east of Q 'umarkaj . The same sakbe that passed the north side of Atalaya is said to pass south of Pakaman . The original name of Pakaman is likely to have been Panpetaq ( " place of arrival " ) and was the first important outpost on the entry road to Q 'umarkaj .
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= Hell Awaits =
Hell Awaits is the second studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer , released through Metal Blade Records in 1985 . The band 's previous release , Show No Mercy , became Metal Blade Records ' highest selling release ; as a result , producer Brian Slagel desired to release a second Slayer album . To that end , Slagel financed a recording budget ( Show No Mercy was paid for by band members ) and recruited several experienced producers to help in the studio .
Lyrical themes on Hell Awaits include hell and Satan , as their debut . The intro of the first track " Hell Awaits " played backwards reveals the repeated phrase " join us " . Musically , the album features the band 's most progressive and diverse work compared to their previous releases , and according to Kerry King , he and Jeff Hanneman were very into Mercyful Fate at the time , which then led to the longer and more progressive songs . Defined as " influential to future extreme metal acts , " the most popular songs from Hell Awaits were re @-@ recorded by various underground metal bands and have appeared on several tribute albums .
= = Recording = =
Slayer 's previous album , Show No Mercy , became Metal Blade Records ' highest selling release , selling 40 @,@ 000 copies worldwide ; the success inspired producer Brian Slagel to want another record from the band . Slagel hired producer Ron Fair , who worked for Chrysalis Records , and had seen the band perform live and enjoyed their performance . On seeing Slayer in the studio , Fair stated , " Wow , these guys are really angry , " as he was inexperienced working with heavy metal musicians . Slagel financed the album , in stark contrast to Show No Mercy , which was financed by singer Tom Araya , who used his earnings as a respiratory therapist , and a loan from guitarist Kerry King 's father .
The budget organized by Slagel allowed for professional assistance . Bernie Grundman provided audio mastering , Eddy Schreyer worked on remastering , and Bill Metoyer , who worked on the band 's earlier release Haunting the Chapel , acted as sound engineer . The recording featured audio effects such as the intro to " Hell Awaits " , a reversed recording of a demonic @-@ sounding voice repeating " Join us " , ending with " Welcome back " . Still , Araya later stated the album had poor production quality : " Nowadays , production @-@ wise , it 's so under par . But for what it was at the time , those are amazing records to me . I guess we could go in and redo it . But why ruin it ? "
Drummer Dave Lombardo , on the other hand , asserts the album was professionally done compared to Show No Mercy : " I didn 't have to overdub the cymbals , and we had a really good engineer . " Lombardo 's favorite song is " At Dawn They Sleep " , " because it was kind of slow and grungy , but then it had that double @-@ bass part at the end . " While recording the track , neither guitarists King or Jeff Hanneman who wrote the lyrics were in the studio — only Araya and Slagel . On reading the lyrics , which featured a misspelled word , Araya sang it as it was spelled , although it 's not a real word . The song " Hardening of the Arteries " on the album ends with the a very similar section that makes up the beginning of the song " Hell Awaits " and is also one of the only Slayer songs to fade out on a continuous riff .
= = Touring = =
To promote Hell Awaits , Slayer embarked on the Combat Tour with Venom and Exodus . Exodus guitarist Gary Holt commented , " We immediately bonded with the Slayer guys . It was two bands of friends playing with one band of heroes , you know ? We were just star @-@ struck . "
Inside Venom 's tour bus ( the first time Slayer had been in one ) the band members got drunk with Venom , while listening to Hell Awaits . Araya entered the bus " hammered out of his mind , " according to Lombardo , saying " I gotta take a piss ! Where 's the bathroom in this thing ? " Venom singer Conrad " Cronos " Lant responded , saying " Right here — right here in my mouth ! " Araya took him literally and urinated on his hair . Cronos got up and punched him in the face , the two blamed each other all night , and Araya continued the tour with a black eye . Araya won 't discuss the incident other than saying that he was drunk and it was a very disrespectful thing to do .
= = Reception = =
Although it did not enter any charts , Hell Awaits was hailed upon its release as Slayer 's most progressive recording , featuring much darker thrash @-@ oriented style , with unusual arrangements such as varying tempos , and dissonant nuances that " paved the way to a wholly distinctive sound all their own , " according to AllMusic reviewer Eduardo Rivadavia . Rivadavia awarded the album four out of five stars , calling it an " irresistible force , but one could still make a confident point that Hell Awaits ' uniquely daunting compositions arguably proved just as influential to future extreme metal acts . " It has sold over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 records worldwide according to Brian Slagel .
In the book Legends of Rock Guitar , Hell Awaits was defined as " a psychotic exploration into the depths of Satanism and physical torture . " The book , a chronology of the great guitarists of rock which includes both Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman , observed the band 's evolution in comparison with their previous album , Show No Mercy , saying , " The musicianship is improved , as is lead singer Tom Araya 's voice , making the band sound less like hacks and more like metal fiends . The sludgy riffs , which were pure [ Black ] Sabbath , are offset by some of King 's and Hanneman 's faster solos , giving Slayer entrée into the speed metal realm . "
= = Influence = =
Musicians such as singer Phil Anselmo and drummer Gene Hoglan cite Hell Awaits as an influence . Anselmo — known for his work with Pantera , Down , and Superjoint Ritual — explained in an interview with D. X. Ferris , author of the book about the album Reign in Blood , that " Hell Awaits just holds the entire thing . Every bit of everything to do with heavy music . [ Slayer ] are gods , the best band from California , for sure . " Norwegian musician Frode Sivertsen ( also known as " E. N. Death " ) , former member of the black metal band Gehenna , says the song " Hell Awaits " and Slayer 's music in general has influenced him as a musician , ranking the album in his top five . Dimebag Darrell of Pantera and Damageplan picked " At Dawn They Sleep " among his 12 Favorite Tunes in the March 1993 issue of Guitar World , stating that Slayer taught him " how to play with guts and aggression " .
Defined as " influential to future extreme metal acts , " the most popular songs from Hell Awaits were re @-@ recorded by various underground metal bands , and have appeared in several tribute albums , such as Slatanic Slaughter II and Gateway to Hell 1 & 2 . The song " Hell Awaits " has been covered by Cradle of Filth and Incantation , " Kill Again " by Angelcorpse , " Praise of Death " by Sinister , " At Dawn They Sleep " by Six Feet Under , and " Necrophiliac " by Sadistic Intent , Benediction and Fleshcrawl .
= = Track listing = =
^ † The Metal Classics version features two additional songs taken from Haunting the Chapel . The version of Show No Mercy from the same series ( CD ZORRO 7 ) includes the remaining two tracks of the EP .
= = Personnel = =
Performers
Tom Araya – bass , lead vocals
Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar
Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar , backing vocals
Dave Lombardo – drums
Production
Carolyn Collins – assistant engineer
Ron Fair – engineer
Bernie Grundman – mastering
Albert Cuellar – artwork
Brian James – layout design
Bill Metoyer – engineer
Lowell Katz – photography
Brian Slagel – producer
Slayer – producer
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= Albatross =
Albatrosses , of the biological family Diomedeidae , are large seabirds allied to the procellariids , storm petrels and diving petrels in the order Procellariiformes ( the tubenoses ) . They range widely in the Southern Ocean and the North Pacific . They are absent from the North Atlantic , although fossil remains show they once occurred there and occasional vagrants are found . Albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds , and the great albatrosses ( genus Diomedea ) have the largest wingspans of any extant birds , reaching up to 3 @.@ 7 metres ( 12 feet ) . The albatrosses are usually regarded as falling into four genera , but there is disagreement over the number of species .
Albatrosses are highly efficient in the air , using dynamic soaring and slope soaring to cover great distances with little exertion . They feed on squid , fish and krill by either scavenging , surface seizing or diving . Albatrosses are colonial , nesting for the most part on remote oceanic islands , often with several species nesting together . Pair bonds between males and females form over several years , with the use of " ritualised dances " , and will last for the life of the pair . A breeding season can take over a year from laying to fledging , with a single egg laid in each breeding attempt . A Laysan albatross , named Wisdom , on Midway Island is recognised as the oldest wild bird in the world ; she was first banded in 1956 by Chandler Robbins .
Of the 22 species of albatross recognised by the IUCN , all are listed as at some level of concern ; 3 species are Critically Endangered , 5 species are Endangered , 7 species are Near Threatened , and 7 species are Vulnerable . Numbers of albatrosses have declined in the past due to harvesting for feathers , but today the albatrosses are threatened by introduced species , such as rats and feral cats that attack eggs , chicks and nesting adults ; by pollution ; by a serious decline in fish stocks in many regions largely due to overfishing ; and by longline fishing . Longline fisheries pose the greatest threat , as feeding birds are attracted to the bait , become hooked on the lines , and drown . Identified stakeholders such as governments , conservation organisations and people in the fishing industry are all working toward reducing this bycatch .
= = Biology = =
= = = Taxonomy and evolution = = =
The albatrosses comprise between 13 and 24 species ( the number of species is still a matter of some debate , 21 being the most commonly accepted number ) in four genera . These genera are the great albatrosses ( Diomedea ) , the mollymawks ( Thalassarche ) , the North Pacific albatrosses ( Phoebastria ) , and the sooty albatrosses or sooties ( Phoebetria ) . The North Pacific albatrosses are considered to be a sister taxon to the great albatrosses , while the sooty albatrosses are considered closer to the mollymawks .
The taxonomy of the albatross group has been a source of much debate . The Sibley @-@ Ahlquist taxonomy places seabirds , birds of prey and many others in a greatly enlarged order , Ciconiiformes , whereas the ornithological organisations in North America , Europe , South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand retain the more traditional order Procellariiformes . The albatrosses can be separated from the other Procellariiformes both genetically and through morphological characteristics , size , their legs , and the arrangement of their nasal tubes ( see below : Morphology and flight ) .
Within the family , the assignment of genera has been debated for over 100 years . Originally placed into a single genus , Diomedea , they were rearranged by Reichenbach into four different genera in 1852 , then lumped back together and split apart again several times , acquiring 12 different genus names in total ( though never more than eight at one time ) by 1965 ( Diomedea , Phoebastria , Thalassarche , Phoebetria , Thalassageron , Diomedella , Nealbatrus , Rhothonia , Julietata , Galapagornis , Laysanornis , and Penthirenia ) .
By 1965 , in an attempt to bring some order back to the classification of albatrosses , they were lumped into two genera , Phoebetria ( the sooty albatrosses which most closely seemed to resemble the procellarids and were at the time considered " primitive " ) and Diomedea ( the rest ) . Though there was a case for the simplification of the family ( particularly the nomenclature ) , the classification was based on the morphological analysis by Elliott Coues in 1866 , and paid little attention to more recent studies and even ignored some of Coues 's suggestions .
More recent research by Gary Nunn of the American Museum of Natural History ( 1996 ) and other researchers around the world studied the mitochondrial DNA of all 14 accepted species , finding four , not two , monophyletic groups within the albatrosses . They proposed the resurrection of two of the old genus names , Phoebastria for the North Pacific albatrosses and Thalassarche for the mollymawks , with the great albatrosses retaining Diomedea and the sooty albatrosses staying in Phoebetria . Both the British Ornithologists ' Union and the South African authorities split the albatrosses into four genera as Nunn suggested , and the change has been accepted by the majority of researchers .
While some agree on the number of genera , fewer agree on the number of species . Historically , up to 80 different taxa have been described by different researchers ; most of these were incorrectly identified juvenile birds .
Based on the work on albatross genera , Robertson and Nunn went on in 1998 to propose a revised taxonomy with 24 different species , compared to the 14 then accepted . This expanded taxonomy elevated many established subspecies to full species , but was criticised for not using , in every case , peer reviewed information to justify the splits . Since then , further studies have in some instances supported or disproved the splits ; a 2004 paper analysing the mitochondrial DNA and microsatellites agreed with the conclusion that the Antipodean albatross and the Tristan albatross were distinct from the wandering albatross , per Robertson and Nunn , but found that the suggested Gibson 's albatross , Diomedea gibsoni , was not distinct from the Antipodean albatross . For the most part , an interim taxonomy of 21 species is accepted by ITIS and many other researchers , though by no means all — in 2004 Penhallurick and Wink called for the number of species to be reduced to 13 ( including the lumping of the Amsterdam albatross with the wandering albatross ) , although this paper was itself controversial . On all sides is the widespread agreement on the need for further research to clarify the issue .
Sibley and Ahlquist 's molecular study of the evolution of the bird families has put the radiation of the Procellariiformes in the Oligocene period ( 35 – 30 million years ago ) , though this group probably originated earlier , with a fossil sometimes attributed to the order , a seabird known as Tytthostonyx , being found in late Cretaceous rocks ( 70 mya ) . The molecular evidence suggests that the storm petrels were the first to diverge from the ancestral stock , and the albatrosses next , with the procellarids and diving petrels separating later . The earliest fossil albatrosses were found in Eocene to Oligocene rocks , although some of these are only tentatively assigned to the family and none appear to be particularly close to the living forms . They are Murunkus ( Middle Eocene of Uzbekistan ) , Manu ( early Oligocene of New Zealand ) , and an undescribed form from the Late Oligocene of South Carolina . Similar to the last was Plotornis , formerly often considered a petrel but now accepted as an albatross . It is from the Middle Miocene of France , a time when the split between the four modern genera was already underway as evidenced by Phoebastria californica and Diomedea milleri , both being mid @-@ Miocene species from Sharktooth Hill , California . These show that the split between the great albatrosses and the North Pacific albatrosses occurred by 15 mya . Similar fossil finds in the Southern Hemisphere put the split between the sooties and mollymawks at 10 mya . The fossil record of the albatrosses in the Northern Hemisphere is more complete than that of the southern , and many fossil forms of albatross have been found in the North Atlantic , which today has no albatrosses . The remains of a colony of short @-@ tailed albatrosses have been uncovered on the island of Bermuda , and the majority of fossil albatrosses from the North Atlantic have been of the genus Phoebastria ( the North Pacific albatrosses ) ; one , Phoebastria anglica , has been found in deposits in both North Carolina and England . Due to convergent evolution in particular of the leg and foot bones , remains of the prehistoric pseudotooth birds ( Pelagornithidae ) may be mistaken for those of extinct albatrosses ; Manu may be such a case , and quite certainly the supposed giant albatross femur from the Early Pleistocene Dainichi Formation at Kakegawa , Japan , actually is from one of the last pseudotooth birds . For more data on fossil species of the living albatross genera , see the genus articles .
= = = Morphology and flight = = =
The albatrosses are a group of large to very large birds ; they are the largest of the procellariiformes . The bill is large , strong and sharp @-@ edged , the upper mandible terminating in a large hook . This bill is composed of several horny plates , and along the sides are the two " tubes " , long nostrils that give the order its former name . The tubes of all albatrosses are along the sides of the bill , unlike the rest of the Procellariiformes where the tubes run along the top of the bill . These tubes allow the albatrosses to measure the exact airspeed in flight ; the nostrils are analogous to the pitot tubes in modern aircraft . The albatross needs accurate airspeed measurement in order to perform dynamic soaring . Like other Procellariiformes , they use their uniquely developed sense of smell to locate potential food sources , whereas most birds depend on eyesight . The feet have no hind toe and the three anterior toes are completely webbed . The legs are strong for Procellariiformes , making them and the giant petrels the only members of that order which can walk well on land .
Albatrosses , along with all Procellariiformes , must excrete the salts they ingest in drinking sea water and eating marine invertebrates . All birds have an enlarged nasal gland at the base of the bill , above their eyes . This gland is inactive in species that do not require it , but in the Procellariiformes it acts as a salt gland . Scientists are uncertain as to its exact processes , but do know in general terms that it removes salt by secreting a 5 % saline solution that drips out of their nose or is forcibly ejected .
The adult plumage of most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper @-@ wing and back with white undersides , often compared to that of a gull . The extent of colouration varies : the southern royal albatross is almost completely white except for the ends and trailing edges of the wings in fully mature males , while the Amsterdam albatross has an almost juvenile @-@ like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown , particularly a strong brown band around the chest . Several species of mollymawks and North Pacific albatrosses have face markings like eye patches or have grey or yellow on the head and nape . Three albatross species , the black @-@ footed albatross and the two sooty albatrosses , vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely dark brown ( or dark grey in places in the case of the light @-@ mantled albatross ) . Albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage .
The wingspans of the largest great albatrosses ( genus Diomedea ) are the largest of any bird , exceeding 340 cm ( 11 @.@ 2 ft ) , although the other species ' wingspans are considerably smaller at no more than 1 @.@ 75 m ( 5 @.@ 7 ft ) . The wings are stiff and cambered , with thickened streamlined leading edges . Albatrosses travel huge distances with two techniques used by many long @-@ winged seabirds : dynamic soaring and slope soaring . Dynamic soaring involves repeatedly rising into wind and descending downwind , thus gaining energy from the vertical wind gradient . The only effort expended is in the turns at the top and bottom of every such loop . This maneuver allows the bird to cover almost a thousand kilometres a day without flapping its wings . Slope soaring uses the rising air on the windward side of large waves . Albatross have high glide ratios , around 22 : 1 to 23 : 1 , meaning that for every metre they drop , they can travel forward 22 metres . They are aided in soaring by a shoulder @-@ lock , a sheet of tendon that locks the wing when fully extended , allowing the wing to be kept outstretched without any muscle expenditure , a morphological adaptation they share with the giant petrels .
Albatrosses combine these soaring techniques with the use of predictable weather systems : albatrosses in the Southern Hemisphere flying north from their colonies will take a clockwise route , and those flying south will fly counterclockwise . Albatrosses are so well adapted to this lifestyle that their heart rates while flying are close to their basal heart rate when resting . This efficiency is such that the most energetically demanding aspect of a foraging trip is not the distance covered , but the landings , take @-@ offs and hunting they undertake having found a food source . A common assumption is that albatrosses must be able to sleep in flight , although no direct evidence has ever been obtained .
This efficient long @-@ distance travelling underlies the albatross 's success as a long @-@ distance forager , covering great distances and expending little energy looking for patchily distributed food sources . Their adaptation to gliding flight makes them dependent on wind and waves , however , as their long wings are ill @-@ suited to powered flight and most species lack the muscles and energy to undertake sustained flapping flight . Albatrosses in calm seas are forced to rest on the ocean 's surface until the wind picks up again . The North Pacific albatrosses can use a flight style known as flap @-@ gliding , where the bird progresses by bursts of flapping followed by gliding . When taking off , albatrosses need to take a run up to allow enough air to move under the wing to provide lift .
The dynamic soaring of albatrosses is inspiring to airplane designers : German aerospace engineer Johannes Traugott and colleagues have charted the albatross 's nuanced flight pattern and are looking for ways to apply this to aircraft , especially in the area of drones and unmanned aircraft .
= = = Distribution and range at sea = = =
Most albatrosses range in the Southern Hemisphere from Antarctica to Australia , South Africa and South America . The exceptions to this are the four North Pacific albatrosses , of which three occur exclusively in the North Pacific , from Hawaii to Japan , California and Alaska ; and one , the waved albatross , breeds in the Galápagos Islands and feeds off the coast of South America . The need for wind to enable gliding is the reason albatrosses are for the most part confined to higher latitudes : being unsuited to sustained flapping flight makes crossing the doldrums extremely difficult . The exception , the waved albatross , is able to live in the equatorial waters around the Galápagos Islands because of the cool waters of the Humboldt Current and the resulting winds .
It is not known for certain why the albatrosses became extinct in the North Atlantic , although rising sea levels due to an interglacial warming period are thought to have submerged the site of a short @-@ tailed albatross colony that has been excavated in Bermuda . Some southern species have occasionally turned up as vagrants in the North Atlantic and can become exiled , remaining there for decades . One of these exiles , a black @-@ browed albatross , returned to gannet colonies in Scotland for many years in an attempt to breed .
The use of satellite tracking is teaching scientists a great deal about the way albatrosses forage across the ocean to find food . They undertake no annual migration , but disperse widely after breeding — Southern Hemisphere species often undertake circumpolar trips . There is also evidence of separate ranges for different species at sea . A comparison of the foraging niches of two related species that breed on Campbell Island , the Campbell albatross and the grey @-@ headed albatross , showed the Campbell albatross primarily fed over the Campbell Plateau whereas the grey @-@ headed albatross fed in more pelagic , oceanic waters . Wandering albatrosses also react strongly to bathymetry , feeding only in waters deeper than 1000 m ( 3281 ft ) ; so rigidly did the satellite plots match this contour that one scientist remarked , " It almost appears as if the birds notice and obey a ' No Entry ' sign where the water shallows to less than 1000 m " . There is also evidence of different ranges for the two sexes of the same species ; a study of Tristan albatrosses breeding on Gough Island showed that males foraged to the west of Gough and females to the east .
Birdlife has satellite tracking records for each of the 22 species of albatross in their Seabird Tracking Database .
= = = Diet = = =
The albatross diet is predominantly cephalopods , fish , crustaceans , and offal ( organ meat ) , although they will also scavenge carrion and feed on other zooplankton . It should be noted that for most species a comprehensive understanding of diet is known for only the breeding season , when the albatrosses regularly return to land and study is possible . The importance of each of these food sources varies from species to species , and even from population to population ; some concentrate on squid alone , others take more krill or fish . Of the two albatross species found in Hawaii , one , the black @-@ footed albatross , takes mostly fish while the Laysan feeds on squid .
The use of data loggers at sea that record ingestion of water against time ( providing a likely time of feeding ) suggests that albatrosses predominantly feed during the day . Analysis of the squid beaks regurgitated by albatrosses has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive , and include mid @-@ water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatross , suggesting that , for some species ( like the wandering albatross ) , scavenged squid may be an important part of the diet . The source of these dead squid is a matter of debate ; some certainly comes from squid fisheries , but in nature it primarily comes from the die @-@ off that occurs after squid spawning and the vomit of squid @-@ eating whales ( sperm whales , pilot whales and southern bottlenose whales ) . The diet of other species , like the black @-@ browed albatross or the grey @-@ headed albatross , is rich with smaller species of squid that tend to sink after death , and scavenging is not assumed to play a large role in their diet . The waved albatross has been observed practising kleptoparasitism , harassing boobies to steal their food , making it the only member of its order to do so regularly .
Until recently it was thought that albatrosses were predominantly surface feeders , swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents , predators , or death . The deployment of capillary depth recorders , which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird , has shown that while some species , like the wandering albatross , do not dive deeper than a metre , some species , like the light @-@ mantled albatross , have a mean diving depth of almost 5 m and can dive as deep as 12 @.@ 5 m . In addition to surface feeding and diving , they have also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey .
= = = Breeding and dancing = = =
Albatrosses are colonial , usually nesting on isolated islands ; where colonies are on larger landmasses , they are found on exposed headlands with good approaches from the sea in several directions , like the colony on the Otago Peninsula in Dunedin , New Zealand . Many Buller 's albatrosses and black @-@ footed albatrosses nest under trees in open forest . Colonies vary from the very dense aggregations favoured by the mollymawks ( black @-@ browed albatross colonies on the Falkland Islands have densities of 70 nests per 100 m2 ) to the much looser groups and widely spaced individual nests favoured by the sooty and great albatrosses . All albatross colonies are on islands that historically were free of land mammals . Albatrosses are highly philopatric , meaning they will usually return to their natal colony to breed . This tendency to return to their point of origin to breed is so strong that a study of Laysan albatross showed that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22 m ( 72 ft ) .
Albatrosses live much longer than other birds ; they delay breeding for longer and invest more effort into fewer young . Most species survive upwards of 50 years , the oldest recorded being a northern royal albatross that was ringed as an adult and survived for another 51 years , giving it an estimated age of 61 . Given that most albatross ringing projects are considerably younger than that , it is thought likely that other species will prove to live at least as long .
Albatrosses reach sexual maturity slowly , after about five years , but even once they have reached maturity , they will not begin to breed for another couple of years ( even up to 10 years for some species ) . Young non @-@ breeders will attend a colony prior to beginning to breed , spending many years practising the elaborate breeding rituals and " dances " that the family is famous for . Birds arriving back at the colony for the first time already have the stereotyped behaviours that compose albatross language , but can neither " read " that behaviour as exhibited by other birds nor respond appropriately . After a period of trial and error learning , the young birds learn the syntax and perfect the dances . This language is mastered more rapidly if the younger birds are around older birds .
The repertoire of behaviour involves synchronised performances of various actions such as preening , pointing , calling , bill clacking , staring , and combinations of such behaviours ( like the sky @-@ call ) . When a bird first returns to the colony it will dance with many partners , but after a number of years the number of birds an individual will interact with drops , until one partner is chosen and a pair is formed . They then continue to perfect an individual language that will eventually be unique to that one pair . Having established a pair bond that will last for life , however , most of that dance will never be used again .
Albatrosses are held to undertake these elaborate and painstaking rituals to ensure that the appropriate partner has been chosen and to perfect partner recognition , as egg laying and chick rearing is a huge investment . Even species that can complete an egg @-@ laying cycle in under a year seldom lay eggs in consecutive years . The great albatrosses ( like the wandering albatross ) take over a year to raise a chick from laying to fledging . Albatrosses lay a single subelliptical egg , white with reddish brown spots , in a breeding season ; if the egg is lost to predators or accidentally broken , then no further breeding attempts are made that year . The larger eggs weigh from 200 to 510 g ( 7 @.@ 1 – 18 @.@ 0 oz ) . The " divorce " of a pair is a rare occurrence , due to the diminished life @-@ time reproductive success it causes , and usually happens only after several years of breeding failure .
All the southern albatrosses create large nests for their egg , utilizing grass , shrubs , soil , peat , and even penguin feathers , whereas the three species in the North Pacific make more rudimentary nests . The waved albatross , on the other hand , makes no nest and will even move its egg around the pair 's territory , as much as 50 m ( 160 ft ) , sometimes causing it to lose the egg . In all albatross species , both parents incubate the egg in stints that last between one day and three weeks . Incubation lasts around 70 to 80 days ( longer for the larger albatrosses ) , the longest incubation period of any bird . It can be an energetically demanding process , with the adult losing as much as 83 g ( 2 @.@ 9 oz ) of body weight a day .
After hatching , the chick , which is semi @-@ altricial , is brooded and guarded for three weeks until it is large enough to defend and thermoregulate itself . During this period the parents feed the chick small meals when they relieve each other from duty . After the brooding period is over , the chick is fed in regular intervals by both parents . The parents adopt alternative patterns of short and long foraging trips , providing meals that weigh around 12 % of their body weight ( around 600 g ( 21 oz ) ) . The meals are composed of fresh squid , fish and krill , as well as stomach oil , an energy @-@ rich food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items . This oil is created in a stomach organ known as a proventriculus from digested prey items by most Procellariiformes , and gives them their distinctive musty smell .
Albatross chicks take a long time to fledge . In the case of the great albatrosses , it can take up to 280 days ; even for the smaller albatrosses , it takes anywhere between 140 and 170 days . Like many seabirds , albatross chicks will gain enough weight to be heavier than their parents , and prior to fledging they use these reserves to build up body condition ( particularly growing all their flight feathers ) , usually fledging at the same weight as their parents . Between 15 % and 65 % of those fledged survive to breed . Albatross chicks fledge on their own and receive no further help from their parents , who return to the nest after fledging , unaware their chick has left . Studies of juveniles dispersing at sea have suggested an innate migration behaviour , a genetically coded navigation route , which helps young birds when they are first out at sea .
= = Albatrosses and humans = =
= = = Etymology = = =
The name albatross is derived from the Arabic al @-@ câdous or al @-@ ġaţţās ( a pelican ; literally , " the diver " ) , which travelled to English via the Portuguese form alcatraz ( " gannet " ) , which is also the origin of the name of the former prison , Alcatraz . The OED notes that the word alcatraz was originally applied to the frigatebird ; the modification to albatross was perhaps influenced by Latin albus , meaning " white " , in contrast to frigatebirds which are black . In modern Portuguese , the word used for the bird , albatroz , is in turn derived from the English albatross .
They were once commonly known as goonie birds or gooney birds , particularly those of the North Pacific . In the Southern Hemisphere , the name mollymawk is still well established in some areas , which is a corrupted form of malle @-@ mugge , an old Dutch name for the northern fulmar . The name Diomedea , assigned to the albatrosses by Linnaeus , references the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds . Finally , the name for the order , Procellariiformes , comes from the Latin word procella meaning " a violent wind " or " a storm " .
= = = In culture = = =
Albatrosses have been described as " the most legendary of all birds " . An albatross is a central emblem in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge ; a captive albatross is also a metaphor for the poète maudit in a poem by Charles Baudelaire . It is from the Coleridge poem that the albatross metaphor is derived ; someone bearing a burden or facing an obstacle is said to have " an albatross around his neck " , the punishment given in the poem to the mariner who killed the albatross . There is a widespread myth that sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross , due in part to the poem ; in truth , sailors regularly killed and ate them , as reported by James Cook in 1772 . On the other hand , it has been reported that sailors caught the birds but let them free again ; the possible reason is that albatrosses were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors , so killing them was supposed to bring bad luck . The head of an albatross being caught with a hook is used as the emblem of the Cape Horners , i.e. sailors who have rounded Cape Horn on freighters under sail ; captains of such ships even received themselves the title " albatrosses " in the Cape Horners ' organisation .
In golf , shooting three under par on a single hole has recently been termed scoring an " albatross " , as a continuation on the birdie and eagle theme .
The Maori used the wing bones of the albatross to carve flutes .
= = = Birdwatching = = =
Albatrosses are popular birds for birdwatchers and their colonies are popular destinations for ecotourists . Regular birdwatching trips are taken out of many coastal towns and cities , like Monterey , Kaikoura , Wollongong , Sydney , Port Fairy , Hobart and Cape Town , to see pelagic seabirds . Albatrosses are easily attracted to these sightseeing boats by the deployment of fish oil and burley into the sea . Visits to colonies can be very popular : the northern royal albatross colony at Taiaroa Head in New Zealand attracts 40 @,@ 000 visitors a year , and more isolated colonies are regular attractions on cruises to subantarctic islands .
= = = Threats and conservation = = =
In spite of often being accorded legendary status , albatrosses have not escaped either indirect or direct pressure from humans . Early encounters with albatrosses by Polynesians and Aleut Indians resulted in hunting and in some cases extirpation from some islands ( such as Easter Island ) . As Europeans began sailing the world , they too began to hunt albatross , " fishing " for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport . This sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for Australia , and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from , and regulations forbade the discharge of weapons for safety reasons . In the 19th century , albatross colonies , particularly those in the North Pacific , were harvested for the feather trade , leading to the near @-@ extinction of the short @-@ tailed albatross .
Of the 21 albatross species recognised by IUCN on their Red List , 19 are threatened , and the other two are " near threatened " . Three species ( as recognised by the IUCN ) are considered critically endangered : the Amsterdam albatross , Tristan albatross and waved albatross . One of the main threats is commercial longline fishing , as the albatrosses and other seabirds — which will readily feed on offal — are attracted to the set bait , become hooked on the lines and drown . An estimated 100 @,@ 000 albatross per year are killed in this fashion . Unregulated pirate fisheries exacerbate the problem .
On Midway Atoll , collisions between Laysan albatross and aircraft have resulted in human and bird deaths as well as severe disruptions in military flight operations . Studies were made in the late 1950s and early 1960s that examined the results of control methods such as the killing of birds , the levelling and clearing of land to eliminate updrafts and the destruction of annual nesting sites . Tall structures such as traffic control and radio towers killed 3000 birds in flight collisions during 1964 – 1965 before the towers were taken down . Closure of Naval Air Facility Midway in 1993 eliminated the problem of collisions with military aircraft . Recent reductions in human activity on the island have helped reduce bird deaths , though lead paint pollution near military buildings continues to poison birds by ingestion . Albatross plumes were popular in the early 20th century . In 1909 alone over 300 @,@ 000 albatrosses were killed on Midway Island and Laysan Island for their plumes .
Another threat to albatrosses is introduced species , such as rats or feral cats , which directly attack albatrosses or their chicks and eggs . Albatrosses have evolved to breed on islands where land mammals are absent and have not developed defences against them . Even species as small as mice can be detrimental ; on Gough Island the chicks of Tristan albatrosses are attacked and eaten alive by introduced house mice . Introduced species can have other indirect effects : cattle overgrazed essential cover on Amsterdam Island , threatening the Amsterdam albatross ; on other islands introduced plants reduce potential nesting habitat .
Ingestion of plastic flotsam is another problem , one faced by many seabirds . The amount of plastic in the seas has increased dramatically since the first record in the 1960s , coming from waste discarded by ships , offshore dumping , litter on beaches and waste washed to sea by rivers . It is impossible to digest and takes up space in the stomach or gizzard that should be used for food , or can cause an obstruction that starves the bird directly . Studies of birds in the North Pacific have shown that ingestion of plastics results in declining body weight and body condition . This plastic is sometimes regurgitated and fed to chicks ; a study of Laysan albatross chicks on Midway Atoll showed large amounts of ingested plastic in naturally dead chicks compared to healthy chicks killed in accidents . While not the direct cause of death , this plastic causes physiological stress and causes the chick to feel full during feedings , reducing its food intake and the chances of survival .
Scientists and conservationists ( most importantly BirdLife International and their partners , who run the Save the Albatross campaign ) are working with governments and fishermen to find solutions to the threats albatrosses face . Techniques such as setting longline bait at night , dyeing the bait blue , setting the bait underwater , increasing the amount of weight on lines and using bird scarers can all reduce the seabird bycatch . For example , a collaborative study between scientists and fishermen in New Zealand successfully tested an underwater setting device for longliners which set the lines below the reach of vulnerable albatross species . The use of some of these techniques in the Patagonian toothfish fishery in the Falkland Islands is thought to have reduced the number of black @-@ browed albatross taken by the fleet in the last 10 years . Conservationists have also worked on the field of island restoration , removing introduced species that threaten native wildlife , which protects albatrosses from introduced predators .
One important step towards protecting albatrosses and other seabirds is the 2001 treaty , the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels , which came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by thirteen countries , Argentina , Australia , Brazil , Chile , Ecuador , France , New Zealand , Norway , Peru , South Africa , Spain , the United Kingdom and Uruguay . The treaty requires these countries to take specific actions to reduce bycatch , pollution and to remove introduced species from nesting islands .
= = Species = =
Current thinking divides the albatrosses into four genera . The number of species is a matter of debate . The IUCN and BirdLife International recognise 22 extant species ( listed below ) , ITIS recognise 21 ( the 22 below minus T. steadi ) , and one recent paper proposed a reduction to 13 ( indicated in parentheses below ) , comprising the traditional 14 species minus D. amsterdamensis .
Great albatrosses ( Diomedea )
Wandering albatross ( D. exulans )
Antipodean albatross ( D. ( exulans ) antipodensis )
Amsterdam albatross ( D. ( exulans ) amsterdamensis )
Tristan albatross ( D. ( exulans ) dabbenena )
Northern royal albatross ( D. ( epomorpha ) sanfordi )
Southern royal albatross ( D. epomophora )
North Pacific albatrosses ( Phoebastria )
Waved albatross ( P. irrorata )
Short @-@ tailed albatross ( P. albatrus )
Black @-@ footed albatross ( P. nigripes )
Laysan albatross ( P. immutabilis )
Mollymawks ( Thalassarche )
Black @-@ browed albatross ( T. melanophris )
Campbell albatross ( T. ( melanophris ) impavida )
Shy albatross ( T. cauta )
White @-@ capped albatross ( T. ( cauta ) steadi )
Chatham albatross ( T. ( cauta ) eremita )
Salvin 's albatross ( T. ( cauta ) salvini )
Grey @-@ headed albatross ( T. chrysostoma )
Atlantic yellow @-@ nosed albatross ( T. chlororhynchos
Indian yellow @-@ nosed albatross ( T. ( chlororhynchos ) carteri )
Buller 's albatross ( T. bulleri )
Sooty albatrosses ( Phoebetria )
Sooty albatross ( P. fusca )
Light @-@ mantled albatross ( P. palpebrata )
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